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LIBRARY OF i^ONGRESS. 



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Chap. _^_. Copyright No... 

Shell '.Ib-i- 5 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



PRUNING -BOOK 






THE PRUNING -BOOK 



A Monograph of the 

Pruning and Training of Plants 

AS Applied to American 

Conditions 




luf IL\ BAILEY 




THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 

2nd COPY, ^^^^ U ' 

All rights reserved 

1S98. TWO COPIES RECEIVED. 



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5907 



Copyright, 1898, 
By L. H. bailey 



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Wltixcni VXtusunt Vtircittt 

J. Horace McFarland Company 
Harrisburg, Pa. 



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OUTLINE 



Part I 
THE FUNDAMENTALS 

CHAPTER I 

PAGES 

The Philosophy op Pruning 1-20 

Does pruning devitalize plants ? 4 

CHAPTER H 

The Fruit-Bud 21-75 

The bud and tlie branch 22 

The leaf -bud and the fruit-bud 27 

The fruit -spur as illustrated by the apple . . 30 

The fruit- spur as illustrated by the pear ... 40 
The fruit -spur as illustrated by the plum and 

cherry 46 

The peach and the apricot 50 

Gooseberries, currants and juneberries .... 56 

Co -terminal fruit -bearing 59 

Grapes and brambles 63 

How to tell the fruit-buds 66 

Summary synopsis of the positions of fruit - 

buds 74 

(v) 



VI OUTLINE 

CHAPTER III 

PAGES 

The Healing of Wounds 76-132 

The nature of the wound 82 

Suggestions to the pruner 95 

When to cut the branches 102 

Dressings for wounds 109 

How to make the cut 114 

The mending of trees 116 

CHAPTER IV 

The Principles of Pruning 133-190 

1. Heavy top-pruning produces wood .... 136 

2. Heavy root-pruning lessens wood .... 138 

3. Heavy top-pruning rejuvenates the plant . 139 

4. Pruned plant resumes its normal habit . . 150 

5. Habit varies from youth to age 153 

6. One part lives at expense of another . . . 154 

7. Watersprouts are results of disturbed equi- 

librium 155 

8. Plants grow from uppermost buds .... 157 

9. Heading -in develops lateral buds .... 157 

10. Effect of obstructions 161 

11. Checking growth induces fruitfulness . . . 162 

12. Fruit -bearing is determined by habit . . . 163 

13. Girdling and the like are special practices. 167 

14. Pruning thins the fruit 174 

15. Heading- in induces fruitfulness ..... 180 

16. Season of pruning influences fruitfulness. 181 

17. Pruning depends upon locality and climate. 185 

18. What influences the healing of wounds? . 189 

19. Dressings 190 

20. General law 190 



OUTLINE Vii 

Paet II 
THE INCIDENTALS 

CHAPTER V 

PAGES 

Some Specific Advice 193-340 

The form of the top 193 

How to trim young plants 205 

Eoot-pruning 227 

Root -pruning when transplanting 232 

Subsequent treatment of the plants 250 

Management of top -worked trees 263 

Management of dwarf trees 269 

Ringing and girdling 28] 

Pruning tools 297 

Remarks on specific plants 309 

Apple 309 

Apricot 310 

Cherry 313 

Orange 314 

Peach 315 

Pear 319 

Plum 320 

Quince 322 

Blackberries and raspberries 323 

Currants and gooseberries 327 

Shade trees 333 

Hedges 333 

Ornamental plants 335 

CHAPTER VI 

Some Specific Modes of Training 341-389 

European practice 342 

Trees and bushes in pots 374 

Other special modes of training 384 



VIU OUTLINE 

CHAPTER VII 

PAGES 

American Grape Training— General Sketch . . 390-430 

Pruning the grape 402 

Pruning young vines 411 

When to prune 413 

Summer pruning 414 

Making the trellis 416 

Tying 426 

CHAPTER VIII 

American Grape Training — The Various Modes . 431-493 

The upright systems 436 

Horizontal arm spur system 437 

The high renewal 441 

Fan training 455 

The drooping systems 458 

The true or four -cane Knif&n 460 

Modifications of the four-eane Kniffin . ... 466 

The two -cane Kniffin, or umbrella system . 469 

The low, or one -wire Kniffin 472 

The six-eane Kniffin 473 

Eight-cane Kniffin 474 

Caywood, overhead, or arbor Kniffin ... 474 

The cross-wire system 477 

Renewal Kniffin 478 

The Munson system 480 

Modified Munson 485 

Miscellaneous systems 486 

Horizontal training 486 

Post training 488 

• Arbors 490 

Remodeling old vines 491 



OUTLINE IX 

CHAPTER IX 

PAGES 
VmiFERA GrRAPE TRAINING 494-530 

California practice 494 

Proper method of making cuts 498 

Short and long -pruning 500 

Pruning of yoyng vines 503 

Systems of pruning 505 

Summer pruning* 521 

Classification of the varieties 525 

Glass-house practice 528 

INDEX 533-537 



g 



Paet I 

THE FUNDAMENTALS 



1896 



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1895 



1894 



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1893 






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1. The history of a lilac shoot. 



THE PRUNING-BOOK 



Chaptee I 



THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING 

A lilac branch 'is shown in the engraving on 
the opposite page (Fig. 1). Its most important 
characteristic,— as of any branch,— is the fact that 
its various parts are unlike. We must discover 
the reasons for these unlikenesses or differences. 

The branch is five years old. The dates mark 
the termination of the growth of each year. 
The terminal growths all grew in 1897. Since 
the branches of any year spring from buds which 
were formed the previous year, we can determine 
the normal method of branching of the lilac by 
examining the buds upon the current year's 
growths. The branches a and I are each seen 
to have five pairs of buds. The buds are on op- 
posite sides of the branch. The twig growth 
or branching of the lilac, therefore, should be a 
successive series of forks; but such is notably not 
the case. In other words, the normal method of 
branching has not taken place ; and the reason is, 



2 THE PHILOSOPHY OP PRUNING 

that not all the branches could develop in the 
severe struggle for existence. 

The effect of this struggle for existence is to 
be seen even in the buds upon the current year's 
growths, as on a and &. The largest and strongest 
buds are on the tips, and, as a rule, the buds are 
smaller and weaker the nearer one approaches the 
base of the shoot. This unequal development of 
the buds is undoubtedly associated chiefly with 
the amount of sunlight to which the different 
parts of the shoot were exposed. 

It is further to be observed that the twin ter- 
minal buds are not often alike. The difference 
is marked at &. It is evident that, if each of 
these buds develops a branch, the two branches 
will be very unlike. 

Let us now trace the history of this interesting 
lilac branch. The first growth ended at the point 
marked 1893. In 1894, a shoot grew from each 
of the terminal buds, and three other shoots 
developed. It is noticeable, in the first place, 
that the strongest shoots are those arising from 
the terminal buds, while the lowest buds developed 
no shoots and still remain dormant fs). In the 
second place, it is to be observed that no two of 
the five branches are alike. Three branches are 
strong, but two, m, n, have succumbed in the 
struggle for existence, and are now dead. That 
is, pruning has begun. 

Tracing the strong branch at the right (running 



HISTORY OP A BRANCH 3 

off to o) , it is seen that it grew to 1894 the first 
year. The second year it grew to 1895; and in 
that year, also, one branch, r, was developed. 
It is noticeable, too, that two branches started 
from the end of the 1894 growth, but one of 
them failed, and only a short stub now records 
the fact. The third year the branch grew to 
1896, and a very small branch, q, now dead, was 
produced on the growth of 1895. The fourth 
year (1897) the branch grew to o, and a single 
shoot, i?, grew on the growth of 1896. Altogether, 
this branch has made forty efforts to produce 
branches (that is, forty buds on the growths pre- 
vious to 1897, but not all traceable in the illus- 
tration), only five of which, r, at 1894, q, p, and 
have been successful; and of these five branches, 
two are dead, and only one, o, seems likely to 
persist. That is, in the struggle for existence, 
only one effort in forty has been successful. 

The large branch on the left, terminating at i, 
may now be examined. The first year it grew to 
1894. The second year it grew in the direction 
I, but that branch died and the year's growth was 
lost. The stub or remains of this branch is seen 
at I. The third year the branch grew to 1896. 
The fourth year (1897) the terminal branch grew 
to i, a side branch to j, and another side branch, 
now nearly dead, grew to k. The entire branch 
(1893 to i) has made over twenty efforts at 
branches, four of which efforts were successful, 



4 THE PHILOSOPHY OP PRUNING 

but two of which, h, Z, are now dead. That is, 
two efforts, i, j, out of more than twenty, give 
promise of being useful. It is noticeable that 
whereas these two branches — terminating at o and 
at i — are of the same age, they have developed 
in very different size and form. 

Without waiting for the details, we may say 
that the entire branch in Fig. 1 has made about 
one hundred and forty attempts at branches. Of 
these attempts, or buds, twenty -four have pro- 
duced branches, and of these branches, nine are 
already dead. The lessons to be derived from 
this study of the lilac branch may be applied to 
all plants. They are: (1) there are more efforts 
at branches than there are branches; (2) there is, 
therefore, severe struggle for existence; (3) the 
results are that differences arise and that some 
branches die. In other words, plants must and 
do prune themselves. 

nous PRUNING DEVITALIZU PLANTS?^ 

A year ago I read a paper before this Society 
upon some of the relations between grafting and 
the vitality of the plant [reprinted in The Nursery- 
Book, third edition, pp. 82-94] , and it seemed to 
me that the sum of the argument showed that 
grafting, while often improperly and injudiciously 
done, is not of itself a devitalizing or injurious 

♦Address before the Peninsula Horticultural Society, January, 1893, 
and published in the Proceedings of the Society for that year, pp. 43-49. 



NATURE OF PRUNING 5 

practice. I now ask you to follow a similar argu- 
ment with reference to pruning. This subject is, 
perhaps, even more important than the other, for 
every owner of a fruit tree expects to prune, or 
at least he considers the advisability of the opera- 
tion. There is the' greatest difference of opinion 
as to the merits of particular styles and methods 
of pruning, and perhaps equal difference as to 
the effect of the operation on the life and health 
of the tree. Perhaps every fruit-grower has 
observed evil effects to result from pruning, and 
many of these observers have reasoned therefrom 
that pruning is itself injurious, or at least haz- 
ardous. I cannot, of course, uphold nor explain 
away the examples of injury which follow prun- 
ing. They are patent even to the casual observer; 
but we must not exalt individual instances, how- 
ever numerous, into proofs of the_ perniciousness 
of pruning. There should have been at this day 
sufficient study and experience to enable us to 
pass upon the merits of the practice, as a whole. 
It is urgent, also, that the subject be discussed, 
for however much of correct teaching may be pro- 
mulgated, there is a constantly recurring wave of 
error and prejudice. For myself, I am convinced 
that pruning, even when somewhat heroic, is not 
a devitalizing practice; and in support of this 
conviction T shall present arguments from three 
sources, — philosophy, plant physiology, and com- 
mon experience. I must say at the beginning, 



6 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING 

however, that I do not propose to discuss me- 
chanical injuries to the trees, as a result of 
wounds, for we all know that such injuries are a 
result of careless or injudicious pruning. My 
proposition is this: Does it injure a plant to 
remove a part of it? Is the entire growth of a 
plant necessary to its health and longevity? 

1. The argument from philosophy. There is 
an intense struggle for existence among all or- 
ganisms. The world is now full, and there can 
probably be no permanent increase in the sum 
total of animals and plants. If one species in- 
creases, another must decrease. Changes in the 
numbers of individuals are, therefore, largely 
matters of readjustment between different types. 
Each kind is held down to a certain equilibrium 
in relation to other kinds. It is easj^ to see that 
any species of animal or plant could completelj^ 
occupj^ the surface of the globe, if it could mul- 
tiply to the full extent of its powers. Not only 
do some species compete with others, but the 
individuals of the same species compete with each 
other for standing room. The greater the num- 
ber of thistles in a given field, the less is the 
opportunity for another thistle plant to gain a 
foothold. Now, a tree is essentially a collection 
or colony of individual plants. Everj^ branch, 
even every joint of the branch, is endeavoring to 
do what every other branch does — to bear leaves, 
flowers and seeds. Every branch competes with 



COMPETITION IN THE TOP * 

every other branch ; and there are more germs of 
branches — that is, more buds — than there can be 
branches upon any tree. So it comes that no two 
branches of a tree are exactly alike, but are what 
their position or condition makes them to be. 
Some are strong and some are weak. That is, 
there is no definite or proper size or shape for 
any branch, as there is for the different mem- 
bers of an animal or flower. The limbs and 
organs of an animal are not competitors but co- 
partners, each performing some function or office 
which another does not, and they all obtain a defi- 
nite maturity of size and shape. But a branch 
never attains its full size until it ceases to grow 
and thereby begins to die. Branches are not or- 
gans, but competing individuals. If all these 
statements are true, then three conclusions fol- 
low: there is struggle for existence amongst the 
branches of a tree, and some of the contestants 
perish; the destruction of these branchess must 
conduce to the betterment of the remaining ones; 
all the branches of a tree are not necessary to 
it, but some of them may be a detriment to it. 
In other words, pruning is a necessity. 

Two years ago a wild black cherry tree came 
up near my door. The first year, it sent up a 
single straight shoot nineteen inches high, which 
produced twenty -seven buds and one branchlet 
eight inches long. This branchlet bore twelve 
buds. At the end of the first season, therefore, 



& THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNINa 

the little tree had produced a total of thirty -nine 
buds, one branchlet, and twenty -seven inches of 
growth. The second year, 1892, nineteen of these 
thirty -nine buds produced branches and twenty 
did not start. These nineteen branches made a 
total growth of 231 inches, and produced 370 
buds. The terminal branch or shoot grew thirty- 
six inches long. Here, then, is a little tree two 
years old and four and one -half feet high which 
has made an effort to bear 409 branches. It is 
plain that more than ninety per cent of these 
efforts must be futile. Many of the buds will 
not start, but the tree now has a total of twenty- 
seven branches and subdivisions as a result of 
its first year's growth; if it makes a proportional 
number this year from the growth of 1892, it will 
bear 216 branches at the close of 1893 and will 
have made a total effort of about 3,500 branch - 
germs or buds. This little tree will undergo a 
severe pruning in the coming years, although a 
knife does not touch it.* 

But the natural thinning of the top will con- 
tinue in geometrical ratio as long as the tree 
grows; and after a time this pruning will become 
more severe, for larger branches will be sacrificed. 
Probably less than a fifth of the buds upon any 
tree ever make branches, and less than a fifth of 
the branches persist. The greater part of these 

*The subsequent history of this cherry tree, and record of its tragic 
death, may be found in "The Survival of the Unlike," pp. 88, 89. 



INSI'RUCTIVE CHERRY TREES 



? 



branches die before they come to bearing age, no 
doubt, but some of them perish after they have 
attained to a considerable size. A forest tree 
grows a tall, straight bole because the side branches 
are lopped off; and the more vigorous this prun- 
ing, the taller and stronger the tree becomes. 

Another black cherry tree, two years old, found 
in the woods, is shown in Fig. 2. The first year 
it grew from the ground to a, and it bore buds at 
regular intervals, — about two dozen of them. 
The second year, the terminal bud sent out a 
shoot to h, and thirteen lateral buds gave rise to 
branches. Of these thirteen lateral branches, 
obviously only three stand any chance of living 
in the dense shade of the forest. In fact, four 
or five of the lowest twigs were dead when the 
picture was made; showing that the struggle for 
existence does not always result from competition 
among fellows, but may arise from the crowding 
of other plants. 

These three strong branches in Fig. 2 are less 
than four feet from the ground, but other old 
cherry trees standing near it had no branches 
within fifteen and twenty feet of the ground. 
They no doubt branched low down, as this one, 
but the branches eventually died in the struggle; 
and we therefore have reason to conclude that of 
all the branches on this little tree, only the ter- 
minal one, 6, can long survive. One has only to 
look on the forest floor to see how freely trees 




The curious history of a 
wild cherry tree. 



Upright habit of the 
sweet cherry. 



RECORDS IN TREE TOPS 



11 



have shed their twigs. The trunk of a tree, then, 

is the remainder in a long problem of subtraction. 

A young tree of the sweet garden cherry is 




4. Diffuse habit of the sour cherry. 

shown in Fig. 3, and one of the Morello or pie 
cherry in Fig. 4. In the former, the terminal 
growths are strong, and the leader, or central 
trunk, has persisted. The latter has long since 



12 THE PHILOSOPHY OP PRUNING 

lost its leader, and the side growths are strong. 
Let the "reader now figure out how many buds 
have perished (or at least failed to make perma- 
nent branches) in each of these trees, if they are 
supposed to be seven years old. Any garden 
cherry tree will give him the probable number of 
buds to each annual growth. Even without the 
figures, it is evident that there are very many 
more failures than successes in any tree top. 

So every tree is a record of defeats and dis- 
asters in order that the stronger parts may live. 
It is safe to conclude that if nature is such a 
searching and undogmatic pruner, man may 
prune, too. Those persons who declaim that 
pruning is unnatural, should be taken into a 
neglected orchard and be made to see what has 
transpired in the tree tops. 

I may be met here with the criticism that arti- 
ficial pruning is excessive ; but I answer that 
it is not different in kind from natural pruning, 
and that it is fully warranted by the different ob- 
jects in view. The ultimate object of nature is 
the production of seeds, and the more viable 
seeds produced, the better. Many small fruits, 
therefore, are desired. Man covets the fleshy 
portion of the fruit, or some other character 
which is of minor importance to the plant. He 
must, therefore, thin the plant rigorously, — re- 
duce the struggle for existence — in order that 
size and quality may come before number. He 



THE VITALITY OF THE PLANT 13 

simply deflects the energy into another channel. 
2. The argument from plant physiology is 
equally important. It is a common assertion 
that cutting off a limb is an injury because it 
removes a given amount of tissue in the pro- 
duction of which the plant expended effort ; 
that is, that pruning exhausts the plant. This 
statement assumes that a plant has a certain 
fixed vitality, from which a given amount is 
withdrawn whenever a portion of the plant is 
cut away. I might illustrate this by supposing 
that a plant has an initial vitality represented 
by the figure 10 ; then, if one- tenth of the top 
is removed, there is left a vitality of 9. But 
this assumption is wholly gratuitous. The vi- 
tality of a plant is very largely determined by 
the conditions under which it grows — the charac- 
ter of the soil and treatment ; and, I may add, 
that as plants have no nerves, they cannot die 
of shock, as we sometimes hear it said. Every 
fruit-grower knows that two trees of the same 
initial vigor may differ widely from each other 
in thrift and healthfulness at the expiration of 
five years, if given different soil and care. If 
the plant is very largely what its food supply 
and other environments make it to be, if it is 
constantly renewed and augmented, then the 
removal of a portion of it cannot destroy its 
vitality unless the removal is so great as to 
interfere with the nutrition of the remaining 



14 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING 

parts. It may be replied that the tissue, the 
wood, which is removed in large limbs, might 
have been saved to the tree by directing it into 
other parts of the top by means of earlier prun- 
ing. This may be true ; but I must contend 
that this saving would have resulted only in an 
economy of time by building up the other parts 
earlier in the lifetime of the tree, and not in an 
economy of vitality, for vitality is constantly 
renewed. 

It may be a question if we really save a pro- 
portionate amount of time by early pruning ; 
that is, whether we can direct the same amount 
of growth into the remaining portions of the 
plant by pruning very early in its lifetime 
as we can by pruning when the superfluous 
branches have attained some size and have, per- 
haps, begun to bear. There is an exact balance 
between the feeding capacity of the plant — that is, 
its root- system and food supply — and the super- 
ficial growth of the plant. The more active 
and efiicient the root, the larger the top. If we 
remove a large portion of this top, there is an 
endeavor to supply the deficiency by an exceed- 
ingly rapid growth. So pruned plants are nearly 
always more vigorous than unpruned ones, be- 
cause of the concentration of a somewhat con- 
stant food supply into a smaller number of 
branches. Therefore, pruning must have much 
the same effect as manuring. The stimulating 



PRUNING INCREASES VIGOR 15 

effect of this new growth, or new disposition 
of energy, must be felt upon the root- system 
also ; and I can conceive that it is a point for 
discussion as to whether this stimulus and re- 
sponse to new conditions may not be greater 
when the pruning is somewhat heroic than when 
it is so evenly distributed over the lifetime of 
the tree as to be imperceptible. Growth is cer- 
tainly more emphatic following a heroic pruning, 
but it may not be greater in sum than that 
which follows several prunings of equal aggre- 
gate severity. My own observation and experi- 
ence lead me to believe that annual pruning of 
all fruit trees is desirable, but I am equally con- 
vinced that it does not pay, either in cost of 
pruning or in good to the tree, to cut out all 
the superfluous twigs at each pruning. These 
superfluous twigs can often be left until they 
are two or three or even four years old with 
advantage. Although stimulating effects may 
result from the considerable unbalance of the 
plant when many branches are removed, these 
superfluous and unpruned twigs often afford a 
very useful shelter or sun -screen to the inner 
parts of the top, and they lessen the danger of 
over -pruning, by which the nutrition of the tree 
may be injured. 

I have said that pruning increases vigor. Two 
trees of Siberian Crab were set near my house 
in the spring of 1890. These trees are as near 



16 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING 

alike as any two apple trees which I have ever 
seen, and they stand only twenty -five feet apart. 
I measured the growth of 1891 on one of 
these trees and found it to have been 745 
inches. The tree was then thoroughly pruned 
(February 17), and this pruning removed 460 
inches of wood, of which 432 inches was new- 
wood. The total weight of this wood was seven 
and three-eighths ounces. The other tree was 
not pruned. During 1892, the unpruned tree 
produced 118 new twigs, with a total length of 
1,758 inches, while the pruned tree produced 
120 new twigs and made a total growth of 1,926 
inches. The pruned tree, therefore, made 14 
feet more growth than the other, which is a 
large proportion for a tree only three years set ; 
and the growth was stouter upon this tree, also. 
In other words, a tree from which about forty 
feet of branches had been cut bore at the end 
of a single season fourteen feet more wood than 
a similar tree which had not been pruned. 
Aside from the greater growth which this prun- 
ing induced, the experiment shows — in common 
with all similar ones — that it is impossible, as I 
have already said, to injure trees by what is 
called a shock. It is often said that the time 
of the year when pruning is performed influences 
the amount of growth. It is said that pruning 
in winter makes wood and pruning in summer 
makes fruit. It is certainly true that winter 



NUTRITION 17 

pruning makes more wood in the current year 
than summer pruning, because the season's growth 
is nearly or quite completed when the summer 
pruning is performed ; but beyond this state- 
ment it is not the purpose to venture at this 
point (see Section 16, Chapter IV.). 

I have said that pruning, of itself, cannot be 
injurious so long as it does not interfere with 
the nutrition of the plant. It is important, 
therefore, that I explain how this interference 
occurs. A plant derives a certain portion of its 
food from the soil in the shape of soluble inor- 
ganic materials. These materials ascend to the 
leaves through the young w^ood, and become 
associated with organized compounds like starch 
and sugar. These organized compounds are used 
in the repair and growth of all parts of the 
plant, and they are, therefore, distributed to 
the leaves, twigs, trunk and roots. The growth 
of the roots is, therefore, largely determined by 
the amount and vigor of the top or leaf -bearing 
portion. The removal of the greater part of the 
top may interfere, therefore, with the vigor of 
the plant by preventing the supply of a sufficient 
amount of elaborated food. This difficulty is 
sometimes experienced in the girdling or ringing 
of grape-vines, which prevents the distribution of 
the elaborated plant -foods to the roots. It 
should be said, however, that the grape is 
pruned the most severely of all fruits, and it is, 



18 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING 

therefore, easy to overstep the danger line ; and 
yet it is strange that while certain writers dis- 
parage the pruning of trees they do not object 
to the common pruning of the vine. In fruit 
trees the instances of injurious interference with 
nutrition by pruning are rare, and they need not 
be further considered here. This is proved by 
the good results which so often follow the heroic 
treatment of top -grafted trees. 

But, 3^ou want to say, if pruning is not devital- 
izing, if the removal of strong branches induces 
more vigorous growth in the remaining ones, 
and if there is little danger of disturbing the 
nutrition of the tree, it must follow that there 
can be no objection to the removal of large 
branches. I cannot agree to this inference, al- 
though I am willing to say that the rem ova] of 
such branches may not be objectionable so far as 
direct injury or shock to the vitality of the tree 
is concerned. But there are important reasons 
why large branches should not be removed. Such 
pruning exposes dangerous wounds, it is apt to 
open the tree so much that some of the remaining 
parts scald and borers obtain a foothold, it may 
despoil the symmetrj^ or convenience of the tree, 
and such branches may represent a certain amount 
of energy which should have been earlier directed 
elsewhere; and aside from all this, the cutting 
away of very large branches often indicates a lack 
of enterprise and forethought on the part of the 



TESTIMONY OF EXPERIENCE 19 

grower, and suggests the feeling that he may be 
remiss in all his operations. But while I dis- 
courage the removal of branches three and four 
inches in diameter, I must repeat that it is not 
because I consider such practice a devitalizing 
one. And I should much prefer the removal of 
such large branches to total neglect. I have my- 
self removed many such branches ten and fifteen 
years ago from apple trees which are to-day in 
most perfect health and vigor, 

3. If philosophy and physiology show that 
pruning is not a devitalizing process, common 
experience affords still stronger proof. One of 
the commonest absurdities in our horticultural 
literature is the admonition to prune only with a 
knife, thereby avoiding the cutting of large limbs, 
while there is not an orchardist in the country 
who practices this advice if he prunes thoroughly. 
If scientific teaching and permanently successful 
practice are opposed, then the teaching is wrong. 
I am afraid that some of our accepted teaching 
on the subject of pruning will not stand the 
test of time. I have frequently observed that 
well pruned trees live as long as those unpruned, 
and I am inclined to believe that they may live 
longer; and they produce more during their 
lifetime. 

But suppose that pruning is a devitalizing 
process— what then? Even then we could not 
afford to discontinue it. The gains in size and 



20 THE PHILOSOPHY OF PRUNING 

quality of fruit, in ease of cultivation and spray- 
ing of the plants, are advantages which progressive 
horticulture can never forego. Advise a grape- 
grower to discontinue pruning ! 

It appears to be safe to conclude, from the 
foregoing considerations, that pruning is a legiti- 
mate practice, finding warrant in wild plants, in 
physiology and in the experience of centuries. 
It is not of itself, as ordinarily performed, a 
devitalizing practice, while its advantages are 
several and important. There is abundant op- 
portunity for improvement in methods, and every 
plant needs a particular treatment, and perhaps 
some species or varieties demand little, if any, 
thinning ; but as a whole, pruning is indispensable 
to successful horticulture. 



Chaptee II 



THE FRUIT -BUD 

Since one of the objects of pruning is to secure 
more and better fruit, it is very important that 
the reader know what the fruit -buds are and upon 
what part of the plant they are produced. The 
best way of gaining this knowledge is to examine 
the plants in company with a competent instruc- 
tor ; but since the author can produce neither of 
these requisites, the reader must be content, for 
the time, to look at pictures and to read about 
them. The book will explain a few type examples, 
and will suggest methods of inquiry. It is hoped, 
however, that as soon as the page becomes dull, 
the reader will betake himself to the tree, and 
there obtain his knowledge first hand; but if he 
should complain that the book and the tree do 
not always tell the same story, the author will 
declare that the observer did not see what he 
looked at. 

Without further parley, let us look at the 
plants.* 



♦Parts of these observations are adapted from the author's " Lessons 
with Plants." 

(21) 



22 THE FRUIT -BUD 

TEE BUD AND THE BBANGH 

A twig cut from an apple tree in early spring 
is shown in Fig. 5. The most hasty observation 
shows that it has various parts or members. It 
seems to be divided at the point / into two parts. 
It is evident that the portion from f to h grew 
last year, and that the portion below / grew two 
years ago. The buds upon the two parts are very 
unlike, and these differences challenge investi- 
gation. 

In order to understand this seemingly lifeless 
twig, it will be necessary to see it as it looked 
late last summer (and this condition is shown in 
Fig. 6). The portion from /to li, — which has 
just completed its growth, — is seen to have only 
one leaf in a place. In every axil (or angle which 
the leaf makes when it joins the shoot) is a bud. 
The leaf starts first, and as the season advances 
the bud forms in its axil. When the leaves have 
fallen, at the approach of winter, the buds re- 
main, as seen in Fig. 5. Every bud on the last 
year's growth of a winter twig, therefore, marks 
the position occupied by a leaf when the shoot 
was growing. 

The portion below /, in Fig. 6, shows a wholly 
different arrangement. The leaves are two or 
more together faaaaj, and there are buds without 
leaves fhbhhj. A year ago this portion looked 
like the present shoot from / to h, — that is, the 




5. An apple twig. 



6. Same twig before leaves fell. 



24 THE FRUIT -BUD 

leaves were single, with a bud in the axil of each. 
It is now seen that some of these bud -like parts 
are longer than others, and that the longest ones 




Present year's shoot of apple. 



are those which have leaves. It must be because 
of the leaves that they have increased in length. 
The body c has lost its leaves through some acci- 
dent, and its growth has ceased. In other words, 
the parts at aaaa are like the shoot / 7^, except 
that they are shorter, and they are of the same 
age. One grows from the end or terminal bud 



BUDS AND BRANCHES 



25 



of the main branch, and the others from the side 
or lateral buds. Parts or bodies which bear leaves 
are, therefore, branches. 

The buds at h h h h have no leaves, and they 
remain the same size that they were a year ago. 
They are dormant. The only way for a mature 
bud to grow is by making leaves for itself, for a 
leaf will never stand below it again. The twig, 
therefore, has buds of two ages, — those at h d h h 




8. Last year's shoot of apple. 

are two seasons old, and those on the tips of all 
the branches fa a a a, JiJ, and in the axil of 
every leaf, are one season old. It is only the ter- 
minal buds which are not axillary. Buds are 
buds only so long as they remain dormant. When 
the bud begins to grow and to put forth leaves, 
it gives rise to a branch, which, in its turn, bears 
buds. 

It will now be interesting to determine why 
certain buds gave rise to branches and why others 
remained dormant. The strongest shoot or branch 
of the year is the terminal one ffhj. The next 



26 THE FRUIT -BUD 

in strength is the uppermost lateral one, and the 
weakest shoot is at the base of the twig. The 
dormant buds are on the under side (for the twig 
grew in a horizontal position) . All this suggests 
that those buds grew which had the best chance, — 
the most sunlight and room. There were too 
many buds for the space, and in the struggle for 
existence those which had the best opportunities 
made the largest growths. This struggle for 
existence began a year ago, however, when the 
buds upon the shoot below / were forming in 
the axils of the leaves, for the buds near the tip 
of the shoot grew larger and stronger than those 
near its base. The growth of one year, there- 
fore, is very largely determined by the conditions 
under which the buds were formed the previous 
year. 

All these remarks are still further illustrated by 
Figs. 7 and 8. Fig. 7 is the current year's growth 
of apple. The leaves are placed singly, and there 
is a single bud in the axil of each. (The two 
awl -like bodies at the base of each leaf are 
stipules, or appendages of the leaves.) Fig. 8 
is a shoot a j^ear older than the other. Four 
buds were formed in the axils of as many leaves 
in the previous year; one of these buds is dor- 
mant, but the other three have produced short, 
leafy branches. Any tree or shrub will show the 
same differences between the two last annual 
growths. 



STUDIES OF FRUIT - BEARING 27 

THE LEAF -BUD AND THE FBUIT-BUD 

Another apple branch is shown in Fig. 9. It 
seems to have no slender last year's growth, as 
Figs. 5 and" 6 have at / /^. It, therefore, needs 
special attention. It is first seen that the "ring" 
marking the termination of a year's growth is at 
a. There are dormant bnds at & &. The twig 
above a must be more than one year old, however, 
because it bears short lateral branches at e e. If 
these branchlets are themselves a year old (as 
they appear to be) , then the portion / g must be 
a similar branch, and the twig itself (a f) must 
be two years old. The ring marking the termina- 
tion of the growth of year before last is, therefore, 
at /. In other words, a twig is generally a year 
older than its oldest branches. 

The buds c c (Fig. 9) are larger than the dor- 
mant buds (l hj. That is, they have grown; and 
if they have grown, they are really branches, and 
leaves were borne upon their little axes in the 
season just past. The branchlets d d d are larger 
(possibly because the accompanying leaves were 
more exposed to light), and ee and g are still 
larger. For some reason the growth of this twig 
was checked last year, and all the branches re- 
mained short. We find, in other words, that there 
is no necessary length to which a branch shall 
grow, but that its length is dependent upon local 
or seasonal conditions. 




)6 




10. Opening of flower-bud 
of apple. 




9. Formation of 
fruit-buds. 



11. Opening leaf -buds of a 
crab-apple. 



STUDIES OF FRUIT -BEARING 29 

There are other and more important differences 
in this shoot. The buds terminating the branches 
(e e g) are larger and less pointed than the others 
are. If they were to be watched as growth be- 
gins in the spring, it would be seen that they 
give rise to both flowers and leaves (Fig. 10), 
while the other buds give leaves only (Fig. 11). 
In other words, there are two general kinds 
or types of buds, fruit -buds (that is, flower- 
buds) and leaf -buds ; and cheeking the growth 
induces fruitfulness. 

If the buds on the ends of the branchlets e e g 
produce flowers, the twig cannot increase in 
length; for an apple is invariably borne on the 
end of a branch (which is often so short as to be 
called a spur) , and therefore no terminal bud can 
form there. If growth takes place on the twig 
next year, therefore, it must arise from one of 
the lower or leaf -buds. The buds terminating the 
branchlets d d d will stand the best chance of 
continuing the growth of the twig, for they are 
the largest and strongest, and are most exposed to 
sunlight. These failing, the opportunity will fall 
to one or both of c c; and these failing, the long- 
waiting dormant buds may find their chance to 
grow. The reader should see these dormant 
buds for himself. In other words, there are 
more buds upon any twig than are needed, but 
there is, thereby, a provision against emer- 
gencies. 



30 



THE FRUIT -BUD 



THE FBUIT-SPUB AS ILLUSTRATED BY 
THE APPLE 

We have now found (Figs. 9, 10, 11) that there 
are two kinds of buds, the leaf -buds, and the 
fruit -buds (or flower -buds). Some of these fruit- 




12. The fruit-spur and leaf -spur. 



buds on the apple tree terminate short branches 
{e e g, Fig. 9), but now and then one is borne 
on the end of the axial shoot of the season. Fig. 
12 is an apple twig as it looks in late summer and 
in winter. Several dormant buds are seen on the 
lower part. At a and h are short branches. The 
branch h has made a small and pointed bud, which 
is evidently to bear only leaves next year, while 



ALTERNATION IN FRUIT -BEARING 



31 



the stronger branch (a) has made a thick and 
rounded bud, which is to bear flowers. This 
fruit -bud is shown natural size at a a. The short 
lateral branches are called spurs, in distinction 
from the longer axial growths. We have already 
found (page 29) that checking growth induces 




13. Formation of the lateral bud on the fruit-spur. 



fruitfulness, but on the other hand, starving or 
greatly weakening the growth generally gives only 
a weak leaf -bud. 

When fruits or flowers are borne on the end of 
a spur, the direction of the subsequent growth is 
necessarily changed. Fig. 13 is a bearing spur 
of apple. While the apple is growing from the 
terminal bud, a lateral bud fa) is forming to con- 
tinue the spur the next year. The same thing is 
illustrated in Fig. 14. This side bud (a, Fig. 13) 



32 



THE FRUIT -SPUR 



is, therefore, a leaf -bud, for it must be the means 
of continuing the growth of the spur, and it is 
not likely to get nourishment enough, — seeing 
that the apple is the chief concern,— to enable it 
to develop into a blossom -bud. There is, there- 
fore, an alternation of fruit -bearing buds and 




14. Fruit-spur bearing a mature apple, remains of the flowers 

which failed to set, and the bud which is to continue 

the growth of the spur. 



non- fruit -bearing buds in the spur of an apple 
tree ; and this is true of most fruit trees. 

A twig of Siberian crab apple, taken in spring, 
is shown in Fig. 15. Year before last, each of 
the spurs developed a fruit -bud at its summit, 
and last year each of these spurs bore flowers. 
The proof of this is seen in the scars left by the 
flower stems at a a. None of these flowers de- 
veloped into ripe fruits, otherwise some of the 



FRUIT -SPURS OF APPLE 



33 



scars would have been much larger than they are. 
It was probably for that very reason,— the failure 

of the fruit, — 
that the spurs 
^ were able to 

'throw out leafy 
shoots nearly 
or quite an inch long, to continue 
the growth. Yet, even then, no 
fruit -bud developed on the ends 
of these spurs, for the small 
pointed ends clearly indicate leaf- 
buds. It is seen, therefore, that 
there may be an alternation in 
the fruit -spur, even when the 
spur does not bear fruit. 

To still further elucidate the 
formation of fruit- buds on the 
apple, and to recapitulate some 
of the foregoing observations, let 
us trace the history of given 
branches in detail.* 

One of these twigs (Fig. 16) 
was taken from a strong young 
tree, which bore its first good 
crop of apples last year. This 





15. Spurs of a 
crab-apple. 



*This account of these three apple twigs is adapted from the author's 
leaflet entitled "Four Apple Twigs," issued as a nature-study suggestion 
by the College of Agriculture of the Cornell University, 1896-7. This 
leaflet (and also "Lessons with Plants") contains the detailed his- 
tory of an older and more complicated branch. 



C 



34 THE FRUIT -SPUR 

simple twig is plainly of two years' growth, for 
the "ring'' between the old and new wood is 
seen at B. The main stem from the base to B 
grew in 1895 (the picture was made in January, 
1897), and the part from B to the tip grew in 
1896. The buds on these two parts look very 
unlike. Let us see what these differences mean. 

We must now picture to ourselves how this 
shoot from B to 10 looked last summer while it 
was growing. The shoot bore leaves, one below 
each bud; or, to be more exact, one bud developed 
just above each leaf. These buds did not put out 
leaves. They grew to their present size and then 
stopped (see fli, Fig. 6). 

What are these buds of the tip shoot propos- 
ing to do in 1897? We can answer this question 
by going back one year and seeing what the buds 
on the lower (or older) part of the shoot did in 
1896, as we did in Figs. 5 and 6. Upon that 
part (below B) the buds seem to have increased 
in size. Therefore, they must have grown last 
year. There were no leaves borne below these 
buds in 1896, but a cluster of leaves came out of 
each bud in the spring. As these leaves expanded 
and grew, the little bud grew on; that is, each 
bud grew into a tiny branch, and when fall came 
each of these branches had a bud on its end to 
continue the growth in the year to come. What 
we took to be simple buds at 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, are 
therefore little branches (compare Fig. 9). 




16. A two-year-old shoot from a 

young apple tree. 

Half size. 



17. A three-year-old 
shoot and fruit-spurs. 
Half size. 



36 THE FRUIT -SPUR 

But the strangest part of this twig has not yet 
been seen, — the branches are of different sizes, 
and three of them (7, 8, 9) have so far out- 
stripped the others that they seem to be of a dif- 
ferent kind. It should be noticed, too, that the 
very lowermost bud (at 1) never grew at all, but 
remained perfectly dormant during the entire 
year 1896. It will be seen, then, that the dor- 
mant bud and the smallest branches are on the 
lower part of the shoot, and the three strong 
branches are at the very tip of the last year's 
growth. 

If, now, we picture the twig as it looked in the 
fall of 1895, we will see that it consisted of a 
single shoot, terminating at B. It had a large 
terminal bud (like those at 7, 8, 9, 10), and 
this bud pushed on into a branch in 1896, and 
three other buds near the tip did the same 
thing. 

Some of these branches grew to be larger 
than others because of more sunlight and more 
room on this outward or upward end. In 
1897, — if this shoot had been spared, — each of 
these four largest twigs (7, 8, 9, 10) would have 
done the same thing as the parent twig did in 
1896 : each would have pushed on from its end, 
and one or two or three other strong branches 
would probably have started from the strong 
side buds near the tips, the very lowest buds 
would, no doubt, have remained perfectly in- 



FRUIT -SPURS OF APPLE 37 

active or dormant for lack of opportunity, and 
the intermediate buds would have made short 
branches like 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. In other words, 
the tree always tries to grow onward from its tips, 
and these tip shoots eventually become strong 
branches, unless some of them die in the struggle 
for existence. What, now, becomes of the little 
branches lower down ? 

From another apple tree the twig shown in Fig. 
17 was taken. We see at once that it is very 
unlike the other. It seems to be two years old, 
one year's growth extending from the base up to 
7, and the last year's growth extending from 7 to 
8 ; but we shall see upon looking closer that this 
is not so. The short branchlets at 3, 4, 5, 7 are 
very different from those in Fig. 16. They seem 
to be broken off. The fact is that the broken 
ends show where apples were borne in 1896. The 
branchlets that bore them, therefore, must have 
grown in 1895, and the main branch, from 1 to 7, 
grew in 1894. It is plain, from the looks of the 
buds, that the shoot from 7 to 8 grew during 
the year 1896. 

Starting from the base, then, we have the main 
twig growing in 1894; the small side branches 
growing in 1895; these little branches bearing 
apples in 1896, and the terminal shoot also grow- 
ing in 1896. Why was there no terminal shoot 
growing in 1895? Simply because its tip de- 
veloped a fruit -bud (at 7), and therefore could not 



38 THE FRUIT - SPUR 

send out a branch ; for there are two kinds of 
buds, — the small, pointed leaf -bud and the thick, 
blunt fruit -bud. If the branchlets, 3, 4, 5, 7, are 
two years old, the dormant buds — 1, 2 — must be 
the same age. That is, for two long years these 
little buds have been waiting for some bug to eat 
off the buds and leaves above, or some accident 
to break the shoot beyond, so that they might 
have a chance to grow; but they have waited in 
vain. 

We have now found, therefore, that the little 
side shoots upon apple twigs may become fruit- 
branches or fruit -spurs, while the more ambitious 
branches above them are making a display of 
stem and leaves. 

But will these fruit -spurs bear fruit again in 
1897? No. The bearing of an apple is hard 
work, and these spurs did not have enough vi- 
tality left to make fruit-buds for the next year; 
but they must perpetuate themselves, so that they 
have sent out small side buds, which will bear a 
cluster of leaves and grow into another little spur 
in 1897, and in that year these new spurs will 
make fruit-buds for bearing in 1898. The side 
bud is plainly seen on spur 5, also on sxnir 4, 
while spur 7 has sown a seed, so to speak, in the 
bud at 6. It is, therefore, plain why the tree 
bears every other year (see page 32, Figs. 13, 14). 

There was one tree in the orchard from which 
the farmer had not picked his apples. Perhaps 



FRUIT -BEARING OF APPLE 39 

the apples were not worth picking. At any rate, 
the dried apples, shriveled and brown, hang on 
the twigs in midwinter, and even the birds do not 
seem to care for them. One of these twigs is 
drawn in Fig. 18. Let us see how many apples 
this twig has borne. We can tell by the square- 
cut scars. An apple was once borne at 1, another 




18. A fruit-spur "svhich 

has borne six apples. 

Half size. 



at 2, another at 4, another at 5, another at 6, 
and another at 7, — and at 7 there will be a scar 
when the apple falls. Six apples this modest 
shoot has borne! We may speculate how many 
of them got ripe, or how many were taken by the 
worms, or urchins. 

A curious thing happened when the fruit was 
growing at 2. Two side buds started out, instead 
of one, and both of them grew the next year. 
But one of the little branchlets fell sick and died, 
or a bug nipped off its end, or it starved to death; 
and the grave is still marked by the little stick 



40 THE FRUIT -SPUR 

standing at 3. The other branchlet thrived, and 
eventually bore apples at 4, 5, 6 and 7. 

We have found that these fruit -spurs bear only 
every other year; then, if this branch has borne 
six apples, it must be twelve years old. The 
truth is that it is about twenty years old, for 
some years it failed to bear; but the age cannot 
be traced in the picture, although it could be 
made out from the branch itself. 

THE FBUIT-SPUB AS ILLUSTRATED BY 
THE PEAB 

An old fruit -spur of a pear tree is shown in Fig. 
19. One year it grew from the base to a, and 
there formed a fruit -bud. Let us suppose that 
this year was 1880. In 1881, a pear matured from 
this bud, as may be seen by the large scar at a. 
In this year, also, a lateral bud developed. In 
1882, this bud gave rise to a shoot. The "rings" 
whence it started are plainly seen at a «. It is 
noticeable, also, that the spur ceased to grow in 
the direction a. In this year, 1882, the shoot 
grew to the rings 6 &, and there developed a fruit- 
bud. In 1883, this fruit -bud opened and pro- 
duced flowers, one of which bore fruit, as shown 
by the large scar (h). The short growth from 
& 6 to & is that which took place in the elongation 
from the bud in this spring of 1883. While this 
fruit was developing, a leaf -spur pushed out from 
just below the fruit (h), and grew to the next 



FRUIT -SPURS OF PEAR 



41 



series of rings fccj. A weaker bud also de- 
veloped, which in 1884 pushed toward c. The 
six years' growths can be traced on this side 
shoot, and it once made a 
flower -bud, and a fruit set 
at c; but the small size of 
the scar shows that the fruit 
never attained maturity. It 
probably fell in very early 
summer. It is apparent that 
there is an alternation in the 
fruit -bearing of the pear, as 
in that of the apple; from 
this we may infer that there 
is something like an alter- 
nation of effort, or division 
of labor, in the successive 
growths of many plants. 

The further history of this 
interesting pear spur (Fig. 
19 ) may be summarized as fol- 
lows: 1884, the barren shoot 
grew to e e, and made a fruit- 
bud; 1885, pear borne and 
carried to maturity at e, two 
side buds developing, and also 

two weaker spurs at d and d d, — giving four 
chances of continuing the growth of the main 
spur; 1886, the spurs d and d d remained small 
and slender, but one of the upper branches grew 




19. Old spur of 
pear. 



42 THE FRUIT -BUD 

on to g and there made a fruit -bud, while its 
twin bud (upon the left) did not elongate; 1887, 
fruit borne at g, but it did not mature (as shown 
by the small size of the scar) , and the spur con- 
tinued to Ji, and there made another fruit -bud; 
the twin bud now pushed on to / and made a 
fruit -bud, and the spurs d and d d are alive, but 
evidently doomed soon to perish; 1888, fruits 
were borne at / and li (the bearing year having 




An old pear spur 

been changed), but neither of them matured, the 
side spurs pushed on to // and h Ji, and an at- 
tempt was made at fruit -bearing at d; 1889, all 
shoots elongated and all end in leaf -buds, show- 
ing that the change in the bearing year had in- 
terfered with the normal development, for this 
should have been the year of fruit. Our spur, 
therefore, is ten years old; it has borne good 
fruits three times, and has made five unsuccess- 
ful attempts at fruit -bearing; some of the 
branches are too weak for further usefulness; 



FRUIT -BEARING OF PEAR 43 

and dormant buds still remain on the old wood 
near its base. 

The struggle for existence in an old pear spur 
is still further illustrated in Fig. 20. On five of 
the strongest and upturned branchlets there are 
fruit-buds. Some of the branchlets terminate in 
the small and pointed leaf -buds, and some are 
dead. If the reader has become expert in read- 
ing the histories of twigs, he may find in this 
picture the records of ten efforts at the bearing 
of pears. 

Another pear twig is drawn in Fig. 21. In 
1895, a pear was borne at a, and in that year 
two side buds were developed (as they have 
formed in Figs. 13 and 14). In 1896, these two 
buds gave rise to branches or spurs, each of 
which developed a fruit-bud at its end, he. It 
was on the 17th of April, 1897, that the picture 
was made. Three weeks later all the buds had 
burst (Fig. 22). Buds &, c, d, e, produced flow- 
ers, and / made only a feeble effort at leaves. 
That is, all but one of the buds are fruit-buds. 
In July, however, the branch looked like Fig. 23. 
Although several flowers had been produced by 
each of the four fruit -buds, only one flower in 
the bud 1} and another in c persisted and set fruit. 

Another twig upon this same pear tree was 
drawn (Fig. 24) upon the 17th of April, 1897. 
There are three thick, rounded buds which are 
evidently fruit -buds. They terminate spurs which 




21. Twig of a Bartlett pear. 



<^cj^.JV 




23. The tinal result. 



FRUIT -BEARING OF PEAR 



45 



spring from the top of the growth of 1895. That 
is, the spurs grew and developed fruit -buds in 
the season of 1896. On the 4th of May, the twig 




24. Three fruit-spurs of pears. 

looked as in Fig. 25. The three buds had pro- 
duced flowers, only one of which still persists, 
and even that soon fell. No fruits were pro- 




25. The sequel. 



duced. The buds were too weak to set fruit, 
although they produced blossoms. 

Still another pear twig is seen in Fig. 26. It 
is evident that only the lowest bud is a fruit -bud. 



46 



THE FRUIT -BUD 



The others are too small to be fruit -buds. In 
May the twig was drawn again (Fig. 27). 

THE FBUIT-SPUB AS ILLUSTRATED IN THE 
PLUM AND CHERRY 

A spur from a plum tree is shown in Fig. 28. 
If we begin with the tip of the shoot, we deter- 
mine that last year's growth began at c, the pre- 




26. Leaf-spurs and 
fruit-spur of pear. 



27. The sequel. 



vious year's at &, and the preceeding year's at 
a. The lower side spur has grown to a a, then 
to 6 5, then to the end. It will be seen that the 



FRUIT -BEARING OF PLUM 



47 




28. Fruit-spur of plum. 




29. Spur of Lombard plum. 



buds and side spurs are borne usually near the 
ends of the growths, but the many scars show 
that buds were once present on the lower or 
older parts, but have perished in the struggle 
for existence. The spur differs greatly from 



48 



THE FRUIT - BUD 



those of the pear, in the fact that the buds are 
in twos or threes rather than single. It is diffi- 




30. Spur of Satsuma plum. 



31. Buds and spurs of cherry. 



cult to distinguish which are leaf- buds and 
which fruit -buds. The character of the buds is 
to be determined from their positions rather 
than from their shapes. The first point to 



FRUIT -BEARING OF PLUM 



49 




32, Cherry spurs. 



notice in determining which are leaf-buds and 
which fruit -buds is the direction of growth of 
the entire spur. The 
pear spur (Fig. 19) 
is crooked and forked" 
because the fruit- 
buds are terminal ; 
if, therefore, the plum 
spur is straight or 
continuous in growth, 

it is because the terminal buds are leaf -buds. 
The side buds may therefore be inferred to be 
fruit-buds. The reader should examine a plum 

tree in either flower or 
fruit for further light 
upon this point; and 
from all his observations 
he will be able to satisfy 
himself that there are at 
least two general types 
of spurs upon fruit 
trees, — with termi- 
nal fruit -buds and 
terminal leaf -buds. 
The fruit -bearing 
of the common plum 
is further illustrated 
in Fig. 29, which 
shows the growths of the two last years. The 
last season's growth is from a to e, and upon 




The same spurs in May. 



50 THE FRUIT -BUD 

this part there are no fruit -buds. The second 
year's growth, below a, bears many fruit -spurs, 
each of which has several fruit -buds, thus ex- 
plaining how it is that plums are borne in dense 
clusters. It is noticeable that the strongest spurs 
are nearest the top of the two years' growth, 
where more sunlight was received. 

A spur of a Japanese plum. Fig. 30, shows 
clustered fruit -buds. A single smaller leaf -bud 
is in the center of each cluster. Japanese plums 
also bear from twin fruit -buds on the last year's 
growth, in the way of the peach and apricot. 

A twig of Morello cherry is shown in Fig. 31. 
It is of two years' growth. The division between 
the two years is seen between 2 and 3. Above 
this division, the buds are single and in the 
axils of leaves ; below it, they are clustered 
on spurs. The rounded buds on these spurs, 
1^ 2, are fruit -buds. Fig. 32 shows two cherry 
spurs, one a leaf -spur and the other a fruit- 
spur. The four large buds on the fruit- spur 
are flower -buds ; the central one is a leaf -bud. 
Fig. 33 shows how the same spurs look when 
they have burst into growth. 

TRE PEACH AND THE APRICOT 

The next picture (Fig. 34) shows a twig cut 
from a peach tree in spring (or winter). It is 
two seasons old, as shown by the ring at a, and 



FRUIT -BEARING OF PEACH 51 

by the different buds upon the two parts. 
Upon the older portions there are dormant buds; 
there are also curious angular bodies at e e e. 
We understand what the dormant buds mean, 
but the other bodies demand explanation. They 
are not growing branches, because they have no 
buds. The truncate or squared ends are scars. 
These cannot be leaf -scars, because no buds are 
left above them (and we have found that buds 
grow in the axils of leaves). They must, then, 
be fruit -scars (or flower -scars). 

If we could have seen this twig (below a) in 
the spring of last year, a piece of it would have 
looked like Fig. 35. Three buds are borne to- 
gether, the two lateral ones (which are evidently 
fruit -buds) being large and thick. If it were 
the habit of the peach to bear three leaf -buds 
together, the method of branching of the peach 
tree would tend to be by threes, but we know that 
this is not the fact. We know that these objects 
a a are not spurs (or branches), because the leaf- 
scar is visible below each one. That is, they are 
normal buds, formed the previous year in the axils 
of leaves. If we could go back to this previous 
year, we should find the condition shown in Fig. 
36, in which a triplet of leaves is making this 
group of buds; but there are other leaves borne 
singly, and in the axils of these only leaf -buds 
are borne (as a rule). From this it is seen that 
the method of fruit -bearing of the peach is very 




34. Twig from 35. Triple 
a peach tree, buds of peach. 



37. Partly grown 
peach. 



FRUIT -BUDS OF PEACH 



53 



different from that of the apple, pear, plum, and 
cherry. 

It must now be determined why the fruit -scars 
are single on the twig in Fig. 
34, while the fruit -buds are in 
pairs (with a leaf -bud between 
them) in the first place (Figs. 
36, 35). Fig. 37 shows a half- 
grown peach which has arisen 
from one of the buds. A flower 
was produced from each bud, 
but in the struggle for existence 
one of them (and also the leaf- 
bud) perished. The twig in 
Fig. 34 has no buds upon the 
bodies which bore the peaches; 
therefore, these bodies are not 
leaf -bearing branches (or spurs) , 
and they do not bear again. We 
have seen (Figs. 36, 35) that 
these fruit -buds are formed on 
the axial growth of the current 
year, and bear the next year, 
and not upon spurs. Very short 
fruit-bearing growths often arise 
from two or three -year -old 
wood of the peach, but these are 
really not spurs — although they 
look like spurs — because they 
bear but once. It is plain, 




Fruit-buds of 



Moorpark apricot. 



54 



THE FRUIT -BUD 



therefore, that the peach -grower should always 
aini to so manage his trees as to have a liberal 
supply of new growths. 

An apricot shoot is seen in Fig. 38. It is of 
two seasons' growth. Upon the last year's 





39. Short branching spur 
of apricot. 



40. The three buds with 
but a single leaf. 



growth, above a, the buds are borne singly, in 
twos, or in threes. Normally, a bearing young 
twig has buds in threes, as the peach has, the 
middle one being a leaf -bud, but one or two of 
the triplet often perishes in the struggle for ex- 
istence. Below a there are fruit -spurs, much as 
in the plum. These spurs in Fig. 38 are long and 
simple, and bear several buds ; but one often 
finds branching spurs, like Fig. 39, reminding him 



SIMPLE AND MIXED BUDS 55 

of the pear, although the apricot spur never 

attains such great age as the pear spur does. The 

apricot, therefore, makes fruit -buds both upon 
the current year's growth and upon spurs. 

We have found (Fig. 36) that the triplet buds 

of the peach are subtended by three leaves. The 




41. Struggle for existence among the apple flowers. 



apricot is not so, for the three buds are borne 
in the axil of a single leaf (Fig. 40). We have 
seen in Figs. 10, 22 and 33 that the blossom -bud 
of the apple and pear and cherry contains leaves 
as well as flowers. These leaves persist through 
the season and aid in nourishing the fruit. Notice 
them in Figs. 14 and 23. They are also shown 
in Fig. 41; and this picture (as, also, Fig. 14) 
shows how it is that apples are usually borne 



66 THE FRUIT -BUD 

singly although the flowers are in clusters of six 
or more. 

In the peach, however, the fruit -buds do not 
contain leaves (Fig. 37), and, moreover, the 
flowers are borne singly. Fig. 42 shows that the 
same is true of the apricot. We may say, there- 
fore,, that the blossom -buds of the peach and 
apricot are simple, and that those of the apple, 
pear, plum and cherry are mixed. 

GOOSEBEBBIES, CUBBANTS AND JUNEBEBBIES 

In the gooseberry shoot in Fig. 43, it is plain 
that the part from a to & grew the last season, and 
the portion below a two seasons ago. The upper 
portion has simple buds, while the lower portion 
has what appear to be elongated buds, but which 
are really fruit -spurs. Each of these spurs, then, 
bore a cluster of leaves last year, as if it had 
been an apple spur. If the reader will examine 
currant and gooseberrj^ bushes at any time of the 
year, he will readily conclude that they usually 
bear fruits on spurs, but that these spurs gener- 
ally bear only two or three times. 

The two-year-old twig of a black currant is 
drawn in Fig. 44. It was taken in spring, and 
yet the remains of the old fruit -stems persist on 
each of the spurs. The point of attachment of 
these stems shows the lengths of the spurs of 
the year before, and the crook in the spur at 
that point shows that the fruit -bud was terminal 



^ 




42. The single and leafless flowers 
of apricot. 




43. Gooseberry 
shoot. 



44. Fruit-bearing of the black 
currant. 



58 THE FRUIT -BUD 

(as it must be in Fig. 43, since the spur con- 
tains but a single bud), also that the subsequent 
growth of the spur arose from a side bud. In 
fact, two of the spurs, a, &, developed two side 
buds. The fruit -bearing of the gooseberry and 




45. Bearing shoot of dwarf juneberry. 

black-currant, therefore, is hj means of spurs. 
The black-currant bears mostly on last year's 
wood, but the red and white currants bear 
mostly on two -year -old wood. 

The juneberry twig (Fig. 45) shows that this 
plant also bears upon spurs ; and upon each of 
the four spurs shown in the illustration the old 
fruit -stem still remains. The best clusters the 



A MAPLE SHOOT 



59 



following year may be expected to come from 
the strong terminal buds. 

CO- TEBMINA L FB U IT-BE A BING 

The expanding shoot of a maple is illustrated 
in Fig. 46. It came from a winter bud termi- 
nating a twig. The enlarging scales of this bud 
are at 1, 2, 3, 4. This shoot bears not only 




46. Expanding shoot of Norway maple. 



60 



THE FRUIT -BUD 



flowers but leaves, and the shoot is growing. 
That is, the axis has elongated considerably 
since the opening of the bud. 

A quince flower is drawn in Fig. 47. This, 




47. Flowering shoot of quince. 



too, is borne upon a leafy shoot of the season. 
That is, a shoot sprung from the terminal winter 
bud, and after this shoot had grown several 
inches a flower was produced. Such methods of 




48. Twig of quince. 




49. Branch of small-fruited hickory. 



62 



THE FRUIT -BUD 



flower -bearing may be called co- terminal, be- 
cause they terminate the axial growth of the 
season. 

We can now understand the winter twigs of 
the quince. Fig. 48 is such a twig. There is a 
fruit -scar at d. We know that the shoot grew 
the same year in which the fruit was borne ; 
and this is further proved by the presence of 




50. Cane of grape vine. 



axillary buds upon the shoot between c and d. 
Another fruit was borne at 5. While this latter 
fruit was growing, side shoots started off in two 
directions, one extending to / and the other to 
g. During the following winter the tip of the 
branch g died, and in the spring two shoots 
sprung from it, one growing to d and bearing 
a fruit, and the other to e and not bearing. 
The branch & / made a number of lateral shoots, 
for its tip also had died before the growing sea- 
son began. The twig 48, then, is four years old. 



HOW GRAPES BEAR 



63 



In like way, the reader may trace the history 
of any of the hickories (Fig. 49), butternut and 
walnuts, in all of which the fruit -bearing is 
also CO -terminal. 

GBAPES AND BBAMBLES 

A bit of a grape cane, with a bud, is shown in 
Fig. 50. In May, this bud has given rise to a 
shoot like that in Fig. 51. As 
the shoot grows, flower -clusters 
arise. Two such clusters are 
now well developed, and a third 
is forming near the tip; and 
the shoot will continue to grow 
from the tip, a. This shoot, 
in fact, is to become a cane, 
growing several feet in length 
before the close of the season; 
but the flowers will not con- 
tinue to form, for only two to 
four clusters are borne, as a 
rule, upon each cane, and these 
are all near the base of the 
cane. In the fall, the grapes 
hang from the lower, or older, 
joints (Fig. 52), the cane 
continuing in the direction a; 
and from some or all of the 
axillary buds on this cane, other flower -bearing 
shoots may arise the following year. Therefore, 




51. 



The young grape 
shoot. 



64 THE FRUIT -BUD 

we may say that the fruit of the grape is borne 
upon growing shoots of the season which arise 
from wood of the last year's growth. If, there- 
fore, two to four clusters of grapes may be ex- 
pected from each bud upon the recently matured 
canes, the pruner can determine how many buds 
he shall leave, — that is, how long he shall cut 
his canes, — to produce a given crop. 

In fall and winter, a recent black raspberry 
cane looks like a. Fig. 53. In the following 
summer, the bud above a sends forth a shoot, the 
remains of which may persist the next winter and 
look like b. This shoot bore several leaves, and 
a cluster of berries at its top. The red rasp- 
berry, blackberry and dewberry behave in a simi- 
lar way. These plants are, therefore, like the 
grape in the fact that they bear fruit upon leafy 
shoots of the season which arise from wood of 
the previous year's growth; but they differ from 
the grape in the fact that the fruit is borne on 
the end of the shoot, and the shoot, therefore, 
cannot itself develop into a long cane. In other 
words, the canes of the brambles arise each year 
from the root — and bear the following year — 
whereas the canes of the grape arise from other 
canes. 

Very many plants bear their flowers or fruits at 
the ends of leafy shoots of the season, and their 
fruit -bearing might, therefore, be said to be co- 
terminal (page 59); but this term should be 




52. The fniit-bearing of the grape. 



66 



THE FRUIT -BUD 



restricted to those plants in which the leafy shoot 
is short and reaches its growth soon after the 

opening of the win- 
ter bud. 

Roses, some spi- 
reas, and many orna- 
mental plants, bear 
flowers at the ends of 
long summer shoots 
(see Fig. 54); and 
in such plants the 
aim should be, if many flowers are 
desired, to secure many strong sea- 
sonal growths. 




HOW TO TELL THE FBUIT-BUBS 

We have now found that there 
are three elements or factors which 
aid one in determining the places 
at which the plant is to bear flow- 
ers or fruits, — the habit or manner 
of growth of the plant, the character 
of the spurs, and the looks of 
the buds. Thus, we are to look 
for the fruit -buds on the last year's 
growth of the peach and black cur- 
53. Fruit-bearing rant, upou two or three years' growth 
rasp erry. ^^ ^^^ ^^^ curraut, generally on spurs 
of apple, pear and plum; and the like. We know 
that, as a rule, a spur which matures fruit one 



HOW TO TELL FRUIT -BUDS 67 

year produces only leaf -buds that year, and makes 
blossom buds the following year. We know that 
these fruit -buds are often formed a season ahead, 
in which case they can be distinguished in the 




54. Flower-bearing of wild rose {Bosa Sayi). 



winter, as in most of the fruits ; but we also 
know that in roses, and some other plants, there 
is no way of telling in advance, — except by ex- 
perience, — how many flower -buds there will be. 



68 



THE FRUIT -BUD 



We have found that the winter fruit -bud is 
generallj^ larger, thicker and rounder than the 
winter leaf-bud, and it is usually more pubescent 






55. Leaf -bud of 
pear. 



56. Flower-biid of 
pear. 



57. 



Leaf -bud of 
apricot. 



or fuzzy. There are weak fruit -buds, however, 
which are very like leaf -buds; and these weak 
buds usually do not carry fruit 
to maturity. 

The only positive means of 
determining fruit -buds is by 
an examination of the interior. 
The winter bud is really an em- 
bryo branch. It contains in 
miniature or in rudiment as 
many leaves or flowers as the 
resulting branch is normally to 
bear. With a razor or very 
sharp knife, cut a bud in two 
lengthwise. Sharp eyes can de- 
leaf -buds and fruit -buds in 
apples, pears, and most other fruits ; but it is 
best to have a small lens. A common pocket 




58. Flower-bud of 
apricot in section. 

termine between 



THE FRUIT -BUD OF PEARS 



69 



lens is usually sufficient. If the section of a 
pear or apple bud looks like Fig. 55, it is a 
leaf -bud; if like Fig. 56, it is a flower-bud. 




59. Pear spur with 
leaf -buds. 




60. Pear spurs, E with three 
fruit-buds. 



The globular bodies in the latter are the mini- 
ature unopened flowers; one sees them further 
expanded in Fig. 10. The imbricated plates in 
Fig. 55 are bud- scales and leaves; one sees 
them expanded in Fig. 11. A leaf -bud of apri- 



70 



THE FRUIT -BUD 



cot is seen in section in Fig. 57. A flower -bud 
(taken after it had begun to swell) is shown 
enlarged in Fig. 58. 

The pictures will aid the inquirer in deter- 
mining the fruit -buds in pears and apples; and 
discussions in Chapter IV. may also help him 




61. Tips of pear shoots; 2 has fruit-buds. 



to understand them. Fig. 59 is a pear spur. In 
1897, it bore fruit at its end, a, and two side 
spurs, each terminated by a leaf -bud, arose from 
below the fruit. In 1898, these two branches 
may be expected to produce fruit -buds and to 
bear in 1899. Fig. 60 shows a terminal leaf- 
bud at A, and three terminal fruit -buds at E. 
Below these three is a leaf -bud. These two 
twigs in Fig. 60 are short spurs. 

In Fig. 61 are shown the tips of three strong 



THE FRUIT -BUD OF APPLES 



71 



top shoots from a dwarf pear tree. Shoot 1 is 
terminated by a leaf -bud, and shoot 2 by four 
fruit -buds. During the season, the end of shoot 
3 was injured. The dead tip is still seen at e. 
Two side buds developed, and there was a great 
deposition of tissue below each one ; but both 
of these buds are still leaf -buds. (See Chapter 
IV. for further discussion of this common occur- 
rence.) 

Two apple spurs are reported in Fig. 62. One, 
s, ends in a leaf -bud, and the other, o, in a fruit- 
bud. Both set fruit the year 
before, but the fruits did not 
persist. Fig. 63 shows tips of ^^| d 

strong apple shoots. At d is 




62. Apple spurs; o has a 
fruit-bud. 



J 

63. Tips of apple shoots; 
e is a fruit-bud. 



a leaf -bud and at e a fruit -bud. Observe that 
the stoutest twigs bear the fruit -buds. 

In some cases, the tw^o sexes — the stamens and 
pistils — are in different flowers on the same plant, 
and in a few trees (as willows and poplars) they 



72 



THE FRUIT -BUD 



are on different plants. Plants are said to be 
monoecious when the stamens and pistils are 
separate on the same plant, and dioeoious when 
they are on different plants. In both cases, it 
is necessary that the inquirer should find two 
kinds of blossom -buds, if he desires to locate 
the parts. Fig. 64 is a twig from a filbert 
taken in winter. The catkins, or flower -clus- 
ters, are two at each 
joint. With the first 
warmth of spring, the cat- 
kins elongate and dangle 
in the wind. But they 
bear only staminate or 
male flowers. The pistil- 
late or fruit-bearing flow- 
ers are hidden in short, 
rounded buds, and the 
pistils do not protrude un- 
til spring. Fig. 65 shows 
a twig of hazel (filberts 
and hazels are very closely 
allied) taken in early 
spring, and the styles of 
the pistillate flowers are protruding from 65. Pistii- 
the two lower buds. Other monoecious i^t^fl^^!'"^ 

. , of hazel. 

rruit plants . are the walnuts, butter- 
nut, hickories, and chestnuts, but chestnuts pro- 
duce their flowers in summer, and the buds from 
which fruits are to come cannot be so well dis- 




64. Winter cat- 
kins of filbert. 



WINTER -KILLED BUDS 73 

tinguished in winter except by their position 
upon the tree. In the walnuts and hickories, 
the pistillate flowers are co- terminal, but the 
staminate flowers arise from lateral winter 
flower -buds on the last year's growth. 

If the reader has followed the discussions in 
this chapter he will have derived a general 
knowledge of the external features of fruit -spurs 
and fruit-buds. It now remains for him to ver- 
ify and expand his knowedge by examining the 
plants themselves. It will not be profitable to 
detain him longer here. It will be necessary only 
to answer the question which 
he will be sure to ask, — how 
to tell when fruit -buds are 
winter -killed. It is generally 
the embryo flowers which are 66. Apricot buds live, 
killed by cold, although, in ^^^ dead. Longi- 

. tudinal section. 

severe winters, the entire bud 
of the mixed fruit -bud type 
may be killed, so that the 
bud makes no attempt to swell 
on the approach of spring. The 
normal color of the interior of ^^- iT^^'^t'' ^"^" 

and dead. Cross 

fruit -buds is green or greenish. section. 

When the interior is black or 
very dark brown, it is generally safe to infer that 
the bud is dead. Figs. 66 and 67 illustrate dif- 
ferences between live and dead buds, the dead 
buds being on the right in each case. It should 







74 THE FRUIT - BUD 

be added, however, that much of the reporting 
upon condition of fruit -buds is little more than 
guessing. The surest way to determine the con- 
dition of the buds is to examine them carefully 
under a lens or dissecting microscope. Having 
determined just how a dead bud looks, in the 
particular plant under consideration, the inquirer 
may then extend his observations to a more 
general examination in the field. 

SUMMARY SYNOPSIS OF TEE POSITIONS 
OF FBUIT-BUDS 

The positions of the fruit-buds in any species 
vary with the age and vigor of the plant, with 
the variety, and other conditions ; but the habit- 
ual modes of fruit -bearing may be conveniently 
presented in synoptical form : 

I. Flowers produced immediately from dis- 
tinguishable winter buds. 

(a) Buds lateral, and no spurs: Peach, almond 
(mostly), Japanese plum (in part), apri- 
cot (in part), filbert, hazel. 

(h) Buds terminal for the most part, on 
spurs: Apple, pear, cherry, plum 
(mostly), apricot (mostly), almond (in 
part), currant (in part), gooseberry. 

II. Flowers on shoots of the season. 

(c) Co- terminal, — borne in early spring on 
the end of a very short shoot which 



POSITIONS OF FRUIT -BUDS 75 

arises from a winter bud: Quince, 
medlar, hickories, walnut. 

(d) Terminal, or approximately so, on lateral 

summer shoots: Raspberry, blackberry, 
dewberry, orange. 

(e) Lateral on strong shoots (or on canes) : 

Grape, chestnut, persimmon, mulberry, 
olive. 
(/) Terminal on terminal shoots: Loquat. 



Chapter III 



THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 

Let us consider for a moment the general 
make-up of the plant cylinder. The 
young shoot is tightly enveloped with 
bark. We observe that in many 
plants the increase in diameter of the 
stem comes about by the formation 
of rings of new tissue (or new wood) 
under the bark, and we know that in 
all plants the growth in the thick- 
ness takes place upon the inside of 
the cylinder, and not upon the ver}^ 
outside. It is evident, then, that 
the covering of bark must expand in 
order to allow of the expansion of 
the woody cj^ Under within it. The 
tissues must, therefore, be under con- 
stant pressure or tension. It has 
been determined that the pressure 
within a growing trunk is often as 
much as fifty pounds to the square 
inch. 

A piece of an elm branch ten years 
old is drawn in Fig. 68. It is an 

(76) 




68. Cracking of 

the bark on an 

elm branch. 



STRETCHING OP THE BARK 



77 



inch in diameter, yet the bark at the top is 
smooth and intact. At one time, the shoot was 
not more than one -eighth of an inch in diameter 
at this point. The reader may figure out how 





69. Piece of bark from an 
old elm trunk. 



70. A dead branch and the mass 
of healing tissue at its base. 



much this bark has expanded by the combined 
action of intercalary growth and stretching. 

The lower part of the limb shows that the 
outer layers of bark (which are long since dead, 
and act only as protective tissue) have reached 
the limit of their expanding capacity and have 
begun to split. The reader will now be inter- 
ested in the bark upon the body of an old elm 
tree (Fig. 69); and he should be able to suggest 
one reason why stems remain terete or cylin- 



78 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 

drical, and why the old bark becomes marked 
with furrows, scales and plates. 

If, for any reason, the bark should become so 
dense and strong that the trunk cannot expand, 
the tree is said to be "bark-bound." Such a 
condition is not rare in orchard trees which have 
been neglected. When good tillage is given to 
such trees, they may not be able to overcome the 
rigidity of the old bark, and, therefore, do not 
respond to the treatment. Sometimes the thin- 
ner-barked limbs may outgrow in diameter the 
trunk or the old branches below them. The 
remed}^ is to release the tension. This may be 
done either by softening the bark (by washes of 
soap or lye), or by separating it. The latter is 
done by slitting the bark -bound portion (in 
spring) , thrusting the point of a knife through 
the bark to the wood and then drawing the 
blade down the entire length of the bark -bound 
portion. The slit is scarcely discernible at first, 
but it opens with the growth of the tree, filling 
up with new tissue beneath. Let the reader 
consider the ridges which he now and then finds 
upon trees, and determine if they have any sig- 
nificance. In other words, are the trunks of 
trees ever perfectly cylindrical ? If not, what 
may cause the irregularities ? Do trunks often 
grow more on one side than the other? 
Slit a rapidly -growing limb, in spring, with a 
knife blade, and watch the result during the 



KNOTS AND KNOT-HOLES 



79 



season. Consult the woodpile, and observe the 
variations in thickness of the annual rings, and 
especially of the same ring at different places in 
the circumference. 

We have seen that some of the side branches 
on the little cherry tree (Fig. 2) died, and 
that all the others will probably perish. Fig. 70 
shows a dead limb on an oak tree. The limb 
became weak because the shade was too dense, 
and because branches 
above it took more 
than their share of 
food. Finally, borers 





71. A knot hole. 



72. Knot in a hemlock log. 



and fungi attacked it, and it died. It rotted 
slowly away, year by year its twigs fell, and 
finally a heavy fall of snow broke it off as we 



80 THE HEALING OP WOUNDS 

now see it. As soon as it died, it became a men- 
ace to the tree, for the rot in its tissues might ex- 
tend into the trunk. The tree made an effort to 
cover it up. The tissue piled higher and higher 
about its base, reaching for the end of the 
wound. The limb was eaten away by decay, and 
became smaller and smaller in diameter, leaving 
a cup -like ring about its base. Finally it broke 
off, and a knot-hole was left. Such a knot-hole 
is seen in Fig. 71. Knot-holes on the bodies 
of trees, then, are the cavities left by dead and 
decaying limbs. 

A hemlock log, split lengthwise, is drawn in 
Fig. 72. A knot extends to the center. This 
knot is the remains of a limb, and is nearly as 
old as the trunk, because it starts from the verj^ 
center ; that is, the limb sprung off when the 
tree was a mere sapling. The probability is 
that it is just one year younger than the trunk, 
for branches usually start only on the second 
year's wood, unless some stress of circumstances 
starts out the older and dormant buds. The 
limb finally died and broke off, and the stub 
was buried. The tissue has now grown out to 
the end of the stub, and nothing remains but 
to close over the hole. If the limb had rotted 
away, a squirrel or a woodpecker might have 
taken up his quarters in the cavity. The wood- 
chopper, however, found only a knot ; and a 
board sawed from the log would have had a 



IMPROPER CUTTING OF LIMBS 



81 



knot whenever the saw cut across the old stub. 
If the knot were loose, it would fall out, and 
the board would have a knot-hole. Knots and 
knot-holes in boards, therefore, represent cross - 




73. Improper cutting of a limb. 74. Proper cutting of a limb. 



sections of branches ; and each one is the record 
of an event in the history of the tree. 

A limb was sawn from a tree. Several years 
afterwards a drawing was made of the stub 
(Fig. 73). The limb had not yet healed -in. 
The reason is apparent: the stub had been left 
so long that the tissue had not yet been able to 
pile up over it, and, having no life in itself, 



82 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 

the branch could not make healing tissue of its 
own. The stub is now a monument to the man 
who pruned the tree. Fig. 74 shows how an- 
other limb was cut, and although the wound is 
not nearly so old as the other, it is being rap- 
idly closed in. There are most important prac- 
tical lessons, then, to be learned from this study 
of knot -wholes, — two of which are that nature 
is a most heroic pruner, and that limbs must 
be sawn off close to the parent branch if the 
wounds are to heal well. 

THE NATUBE OF THE WOUND 

The foregoing paragraphs give the reader a 
general view of the practical problems involved 
in the expansion of trunks and the healing of 
wounds. It will be profitable, however, to give 
some of the problems more specific attention. 

The increase in diameter of the stem or trunk 
is made by the growth of cells from the cambium, 
which is a tissue lying upon the outside of the 
woody cylinder and beneath the bark. From its 
inside, the cambium produces wood, and from its 
outside, it produces the soft or inner bark. As 
the outer bark is ruptured by the expansion of 
the stem, portions of the inner bark give rise to 
the corky external and protective layers. A mere 
abrasion or surface wound, which does not expose 
the wood, is healed by the formation of new cork 



THE CALLUS 



83 



cells from the inner bark; but a wound which 
exposes the wood is healed by growth from the 
cambium. 

The cambium, then, is the active, living tissue 
of the plant cylinder. The wood cells soon be- 
come lifeless, and have no power to grow or to 
multiply. It is apparent, therefore, that when a 




75. Cross-section of callus on an apple tree. 



limb an inch or more in diameter is cut off, the 
exposed hard wood can never heal, as a wound 
heals in flesh. The pressure on the cambium 
being relieved, however, excessive growth arises 
from it and from the inner bark, and a mass of 
tissue, known as a callus, rolls out over the wound 
and covers it. Fig. 74 is an excellent picture of 
this callus ring. The ring will eventually cover 
the wound; and if a longitudinal section of the 
healed wound were then made, we should find the 
condition shown in Fig. 75, — the end of the old 
stub remaining as sharp-cut as it was when left 



84 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 

by the saw, and capped over with wood, much 
as a fruit -jar is capped with a metal cover. 

This Fig. 75 is one of the most important pic- 
tures in the book, and it is drawn most accurately 
from a normal and average specimen. It is im- 
portant because it shows that the end of the old 
stub has no organic or vital connection with the 
callus which covers it, but it is merely hermeti- 
cally sealed in, as a nail or a plug of wood might 
be.* So far as the vital functions of the tree are 
concerned, this stub is a foreign and useless body; 
and no dressing can be expected to hasten the 
healing -over process. 

The callus ring grows rapidly for a year or two. 
But hard bark forms on this callus, as it does on 
other growing wood, and tension or pressure 
thereby arises and checks the growth. This bark 
even forms on the under side or lip of the callus. 
Over the end of the stub in Fig, 75 there is a 
thin layer of bark. We have already found that 
slitting the bark upon a trunk relieves the pres- 
sure and allows of extra -rapid growth at that 
point. Suppose, then, that if the callus ceases 
to grow, the operator make a circular cut with a 
knife -point on the inner edge of the callus -roll ! 

In surface wounds which expose the wood, the 
callus also forms from the cambium and covers 
the denuded area. If the injury does not extend 

*If the reader desires to know how a graft-stub is buried, he may con- 
sult Fig. 133 in the last edition of "The Nursery-Book," 



WHY SHOULD WOUNDS HEAL? 85 

below the sapwood, or if the wood has not dried 
out and died, the callus may make a vital connec- 
tion with the exposed surface of the wound. 

The reader now wants to ask what purpose 
the healing of the wound may serve the plant. 
The healing serves as a protection. It prevents 
or checks evaporation from the exposed parts, and 
prevents decay by protecting the wood from the 
weather and by excluding bacteria and fungi. A 
rotten heart, or rotten wood of any kind, is a 
diseased condition; and this disease is the work 
of living organisms. 

The exposed wood dies. It cracks and checks. 
The surface collects dust, which, with the dead 
cells, makes a thin soil in which germs find con- 
genial conditions for growth. Even after the 
wound is covered by the callus, the mycelium of 
the fungi may continue to extend itself in the 
wood, often reaching the heart and causing the 
trujik to become hollow. Normally, the heart of 
a tree should never decay; but sooner or later, 
most trees are exposed to injuries, either in top 
or root, through which the organisms of destruc- 
tion may enter. 

The pictures will help us to understand. Fig. 
76 shows a cross -section of a maple trunk in 
which a nail is imbedded. .The wood closed tight 
about it and no harm resulted. Now, this was 
the nail upon which a sugar -maker hung his 
bucket. Just below it was the tap-hole; and this 



86 



THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 



hole, now completely covered by the wood, is seen 
in Fig. 77. But mischief has come to pass. The 
tap-hole was an open wound, and fungi entered; 




76. Nail buried in the 
wood. 



77. Tap-hole burled in 
the wood. 



and the discolored tissue shows the progress of 
the decay. 

Pictures of ash logs are shown in Fig. 78. The 
one on the right had a perfect -looking trunk, 
although a scar was discernible at one point. A 
section of the trunk shows that a large limb was 
once broken off and its stump completely buried 
under the new tissue; but the log is rotten- 
hearted faj,sind the decay of the old stump fhj 



THE ROTTEN HEART 



87 



shows where the mischief began. The stump on 
the other log is not yet closed in, and its end is 
decayed; and a colored streak fcj running down 
the heart of the old limb shows the trouble that 
is coming. 

A hickory stub has been covered (Fig. 79), and, 
from outside appearances, the tree is now safe; 







78. Disease in ash trunks. 



but a section (Fig. 80) shows that decay began 
before the healing was complete, and the injury 
is already serious. Even in the apple stub in 
Fig. 75, wound -rot is serious. The rougher the 
surface of the wound, the greater is the likeli- 



88 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 

hood that disease will gain an entrance. On 
perfectly smooth and solid wounds, the greatest 




79. A healed-iu stump. 

danger is on the lower edge, where the up -rolling 
callus -ring forms a cuj) which holds water. 

It would be untrue to conclude that decay fol- 
lows from all serious and exposed wounds. Fig. 
81 shows a section of a maple log, in which the 



THE ROTTEN HEART 89 

buried stump is hard and sound; but such in- 
stances are the exception, particularly in humid 
climates. 

We are now able to understand that while 




The stump is diseased. 



dressings or applications to the wound cannot 
directly hasten the healing process (page 84), 
they may aid it by preventing the decay of the 
parts, and they may be the means, thereby, of 



90 



THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 



saving the tree. That is, dressings are preven- 
tive, not curative ; and in this they are akin to 
the antiseptic dressings of the surgeon, which 




81. A sound knot. 



prevent contamination of the wound and thereby 
allow nature to heal it. 

In order to present another view of wood decay 
as a result of pruning, I have asked my col- 
league, B. M. Duggar, to prepare a few para- 
graphs on the subject, and these now follow: 

" The exposed surface left by the pruning saw 



THE WOUND DISEASES 91 

is a meclianical injury as truly as the mark of 
the whiffle-tree or of the wind. If this exposed 
surface is not cared for, it may prove an inlet 
for disease and decay. Unfortunately, this 
matter has not received adequate attention from 
mycologists studying wound-rot fungi ; and all 
that we can do at this place is to suggest in a 
general way what may take place, especially in 
the larger wounds. It is not to be understood 
that all neglected wounds lead to wound -rot dis- 
eases ; but the point is that they lasiy induce 
such diseases, since a certain amount of death 
and decay are inevitable ; and the larger the 
wound, the greater the danger. 

"First, then, we are concerned with the condi- 
tions which bring about and encourage this rot- 
ting. It is well known that when only the corky 
outer layer of bark is removed, another corky 
layer is readily formed for needed protection ; 
but when a branch is sawn across, as in prun- 
ing, the wood elements are directly exposed to 
the air. It is then impossible for a corky layer 
to be formed, and it may be several years before 
a callus will inclose the exposed part. The sap- 
wood of this exposed area soon loses connection 
with the active functions of the plant, and dies. 
All heart wood is inactive, but in sound trees it 
is thoroughly protected from the air, while the 
exposed scar left by the pruning saw is open to 
weather. The open tubes which make up the 



92 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 

younger wood may be blocked to a large extent 
by ingrowths and often by gummy substances, 
but this does not give complete protection. 
Moisture is absorbed, oxidation proceeds, and 
the dissolved organic matter is the beginning of 
a fertile ground to which wind and rain must 
bring the germs of bacteria and of our common 
dead-wood molds. These germs find lodgment, 
and sufficient moisture for their germination and 
growth. It is a small beginning, but it is suffi- 
cient gradually to form a soil more retentive of 
moisture and full of the products of decay, — con- 
ditions more favorable for the development of 
wound -rot fungi. 

"From what is known of this matter, it seems 
fair to assume that bacteria are prominent in this 
first slow process of weathering; but they are 
doubtless onlj^ secondarily concerned in the deeper- 
seated injuries where the decay has penetrated to 
a considerable portion of the trunk. In most 
cases, they seem to prepare the way for fungi 
belonging to the toadstool family. One is every- 
where familiar with these fungi growing upon 
dead logs or stumps, or even upon the decaying 
parts of living trees. The fleshy parts which 
we see are produced at the surface for the pro- 
duction of the spores or reproductive bodies ; 
but the truly vegetative parts are usually be- 
neath the bark or within the tissues, and it is 
well to note how these develop from the spores. 



THE DISEASES OF WOUNDS 93 

Germination consists in sending out a few deli- 
cate threads from the spores. These threads 
enter the moist, decaying parts, branch consid- 
erably, and at first confine themselves to that 
portion which is already dead. As they grow 
farther and farther inward, they may become so 
well established and so vigorous as to induce 
decay of themselves. They may encourage 
the further entrance of air and moisture, and 
thus continually they may be preceded by the 
atmospheric conditions necessary for their fur- 
ther action. At any rate, entrance to the 
trunk may thus be effected ; and with this en- 
trance local rotting is induced, and eventually 
the decay may extend to a considerable portion 
of the trunk. There are many instances of rot 
in which the conditions do not favor the forma- 
tion of the fleshy fructification of the fungus, 
and the cause of the decay may not be very 
evident. 

"In the case of some trees used for timber, 
and many other deciduous trees, there are well- 
known rots and decays caused by members of 
this toadstool family, some of them being pecu- 
liar to a single species of tree, and others very 
general in their attacks. Some of these fungi 
are truly parasitic, being able to enter through 
very small branch wounds, passing rapidly to the 
sound tissues, where decomposition and decay 
readily follow. 



94 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 

"In Germany the large, fleshy, sulphur -yellow 
punk -fungus, Poli/porus stdpJmreiis, is known to 
have attacked and caused decay of pear trunks, 
gaining an entrance through a wound. This 
fungus occurs in America, and while it is not 
reported on orchard trees, I have found it grow- 
ing luxuriantly upon the wild cherry. Primus 
serotina, killing the trunk, apparently, for a con- 
siderable distance below a dead branch. 

"The common little agaric, ScMzoplnjllum com- 
mune, I have observed growing in clusters be- 
tween the new bark and the dead wood on an 
apple tree to which the knife had been severely 
applied after sun -scorching, but this fungus 
doubtless only aids decay. 

"Among pyrenomycetous fungi, there are some 
which may take advantage of the injuries from 
pruning. In Europe, Nectria difissima is known 
on the apple and bird cherry, producing on the 
smaller branches the characteristic canker spots. 
This fungus must enter through abrasions or 
pruning wounds, and the decay which follows is 
often considerable. Nectria cinnabarina is an- 
other one of these fungi, common in this country 
on many hosts, and this I observed last year on 
a large branch of pear, extending to a considerable 
distance either way from a broken branch of 
small size. 

"Rots and decays as a result of pruning de- 
serve more attention, in order that we may 



TREATMENT OF WOUNDS 95 

fully understand the necessity for proper asep- 
tic treatment." 

SUGGESTIONS TO THE PBUNEB 

If the reader has grasped the principles involved 
in this discussion of the healing process, he will 
be able to arrive at many sound conclusions 
respecting the rational making and treatment of 
wounds. He will also see how futile it is to 
attempt to construct any theory of the manage- 
ment of wounds from a few isolated experiments; 
for the interpreted results of such experiments 
often contradict fundamental principles, and there- 
fore cannot be true, however clear and unequivo- 
cal they may appear to be. 

First of all, the pruner wants to know how and 
when he shall cut the limbs so that they will heal 
as quickly as possible. Let us think about the 
matter, and see. 

A twig of a peach tree was cut back in the fall. 
By spring it had died back an inch, as shown in 
Fig. 82. This stump cannot heal over of itself. 
If it is ever inclosed, it must be buried by the 
growth of a branch which shall spring from a 
side bud. There is such a bud on the twig, and 
if a branch arises from it, the stump may be 
overtopped in the course of a few years; but the 
probability is that this bud will not grow, because 
the drying out of the twig has injured it. The 
responsibility must fall, therefore, on a lower bud. 



96 



THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 



Two dwarf pear shoots are reported in Fig. 83. 
The one on the left was cut at some distance above 
a bud, and the dead and dangerous stub persists. 
The twig on the right was cut just above a bud, 
and the wound is already securely covered. 




82. The dying-back 
of a winter-cut shoot. 



83. Poor and good heading-in 
of dwarf pear. 



There are two important lessons to be drawn 
from these simple examples, — the nature of the 
healing process, and the relation of the length of 
the stub to the welfare of the uppermost buds. 
In respect to the healing process, it may be said 
that stubs which project far beyond a branch or 
far from a trunk, rarely heal over. The end of 
the branch being removed, the stub cannot heal 
itself, but the healing must depend upon the 
activities of other parts or branches. This state- 
ment is an exceedingly important one, and we 
shall see its applications as we proceed. 



THE LIFELESS STUBS 97 

In respect to the welfare of the buds which are 
near an open wound, the pictures seem to tell 
contradictory stories. In Fig. 82, the bud is in 
danger; but in Fig. 83, one wound healed over 
because the bud was near it. These apparent 
contradictions are explained by two circumstances. 
The twig in Fig. 82 was on a newly-set, fall-planted 
tree. The roots had not yet taken hold of the 
soil, and could not supply the moisture which was 
lost from the wound. The cell contents were 
therefore injured. The twigs in Fig. 83 were on 
well-established trees. Again, the cut in Fig. 82 
was made in the fall, and those in Fig. 83 in late 
winter. Conditions, therefore, greatly modify the 
problem; but, as a rule, it may be said that in 
severe and dry winter climates, and particularly 
with tender fruits, heading -in of the annual 
growths had better be done late in winter rather 
than early in winter; and this is especially true 
of recently fall -set trees. The healing of the 
stub takes place most quickly, other things being 
equal, when a strong bud or branch stands close 
to the wound, provided, always, that this bud is 
not injured by the drying out of the stub. How 
long this stub may be and not cause injury to 
come to the bud, depends, as we have seen, upon 
circumstances. If the cut is made in spring, the 
bud may usually stand close to the edge of the 
wound; if it is made in winter, the stub should 
usually be about a quarter of an inch long. In 



98 



THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 



the pruning of trained trees, European gardeners 
often take off the shoots in winter when there 
is time to spare, leaving the stubs two or three 
inches longer than desired; in spring an assistant, 
who may have had insufficient experience to en- 




84. In memory of the 
pruner, 



85. The bulge at the base 
of the branch. 



able him to block out the pruning, goes over the 
trees and cuts back the stubs to a fresh bud. 

The reader has already seen in Fig. 73 the 
monument which a man erected to his memory. 
It is a stump which is so long that it cannot be 
healed over; for, as we have seen, a leafless and 



THE LONG AND USELESS STUB 99 

branchless stump lias no life in itself. The only 
chance for this stub to be healed -in is from the 
activities of the trunk; but the end of it is too 
far removed from the base of supplies to receive 
much benefit therefrom. Having no vital part 
in the life of the tree, it is side-tracked, and must 
starve. Fig. 84 is another case. Above the stub 
at the right a cluster of toadstool fungi has 
found a happy foothold. 

Where should these limbs have been cut? 
There is an enlargement— or brace— at the base 
of a limb, and this bulge is usually larger the 
longer and more horizontal the limb. This bulge 
is well shown in Fig. 85. It is a common notion, 
—which the writer, much to his humiliation, once 
aided to promulgate,— that the cut should be 
made just beyond the bulge, and at right angles 
to the direction of the limb. This leaves 'a stub 
like that in Fig. 86. The proper way, however, 
is to cut as shown in Fig. 87, for all parts of the 
wound are then in most intimate relations with 
the trunk, which supplies the materials to be used 
in covering the exposed surface. The area of the 
wound is larger, to be sure, but this is of minor 
consequence; and to such large wounds it is 
expected that the operator will apply a dressing. 

The writer has no doubts as to the soundness 
of the advice given in the last paragraph, but he 
is glad to fortify it by two excellent authorities. 
Professor Sargent, in his introduction to the 



100 



THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 



American edition of Des Cars' pruning book,* 
says that "it is necessary to prune in such a 
manner that no portion of an amputated or 
dead branch shall be left on the trunk. The 





86. The wrong way to make the wound. Side and front views. 



cut should always be made close to and perfectly 
even with the outline of the trunk, without re- 
gard to the size of the wound thus made. This 



*A. Des Cars, A Treatise on Pruning Forest and Ornamental Trees, 
By Charles S. Sargent, Boston, 1881. 



HOW TO CUT THE LIMB 



101 



is the essential rule in all pruning, and on its 
observance the success of the operation depends." 
Des Cars himself speaks as follows: "It follows 
that a wound caused by the amputation of a branch 



li>L:Ili^& 




<tr^-' 




87. The right way to make the wound. Side and front views. 



must, in order to heal properly, be made perfectly 
even with the trunk, that every part of its outer 
edge may be brought into direct communication 
with the leaves through the net -work of cells 
destined to convey the descending sap." 



102 



THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 



When to cut the branches.— At what season 
of the year shall wounds be made, so far as 
the healing process is concerned? There are 
as many opinions as there are months in the 
year. This is the best of evidence that there 
is no one season in which wounds always heal 
better than in all other seasons. It is indication 
that the time of the year at which the wound is 
made is less important than some other factor 
or factors. 

We have seen that the healing of serious 
wounds is a process which depends primarily 
on the cambium. Healing cannot begin, there- 
fore, when the cambium is inactive, as it is in 

late fall and winter. 



We have also seen 
(Fig. 82) that ex- 
posed tissue maj^ 
^^\\ die back during 
winter ; and this is 
particularly true in 
severe and dry cli- 
mates. There is 
always a tendency 
for the cambium 
and bark to die 
about the edges of 
a wound made in late fall or winter, and this 
sometimes progresses so far that the edge of the 
bark becomes loose. All this is clearlj' a disad- 




Healing of a wound. 



WHEN TO PRUNE 103 

vantage to the healing process ; and the check- 
ing of the stnb from its longer exposure is also 
to be considered. 

On the other hand, pruning in the growing 
season of spring exposes the plant to bleeding. 
It is not germane to the present discussion to 
consider the effect of this bleeding on the plant, 
although it may be said that injury rarely fol- 
lows. It is said, however, that the sap sours 
upon exposure to the air and injures the bark 
and cambium about the edges of the w^ound. 
Although this is a very common notion, I have 
looked in vain for a number of years for a 
single confirmation of it. Fruit trees rarely 
bleed to any extent, and on trees which do 
bleed, it is doubtful if this injury follows. The 
Japanese walnut bleeds profusely. On the 10th 
of April, 1896, I cut a limb two inches in 
diameter from one of these trees. The sap ran 
freely, and kept the bark wet for two weeks for 
a distance of nearly two feet below the cut. At 
this writing (Jan. 15, 1898) the wound looks as 
shown in Fig. 88. It is healing well on all 
sides, and there has never been the least injury 
from the bleeding. Moist wounds, however, do not 
allow of the efficient application of dressings. 

Let us now go to the trees. In the fall of 
1891, experiments were begun at Cornell to 
determine the best season for the making of 
wounds and the best dressings for covering 



104 



THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 



them. The tests were made on vigorous mature 
apple trees (Greenings, Baldwins and Kings). 
Branches were cut every month in the year, and 
at various lengths. Dressings were made of 
tar, linseed oil, grafting wax, white lead paint 
and tallow. The results were studied in the 
winter of 1895-6. It is unnecessary to re- 
count the full experiment at this place, but 
wounds representing typical average conditions 
are shown in Figs. 89-92, and these we may 
profitably examine. Unless otherwise stated, 
these wounds are selected from two very sim- 
ilar Greening trees standing side bj^ side. One 
tree is designated (1) and the other (2). 

Fig. 89.— (1) cut Oct. 31, 1891. 



Fig. 



Fi£ 



90.— b 


(1) 


cut Nov. 18, 1891. 


bb 


(1) 


cut Dec. 19, 1891, wood frozen 


bbb 


(2) 


cut Feb. 23, 1892. 


c 


(1) 


cut Oct. 12, 1891. 


ec 


(1) 


cut May, 1892. 


cee 


(1) 


cut Nov. 18, 1891. 


d 


(2) 


cut Oct., 1892. 


dd 


(2) 


cut Mar. 25, 1892. 


ddd 


(2) 


cut Feb. 1892. 


91.— e 


(2) 


cut June 20, 1892. 


f 


(1) 


cut Oct. 12, 1891. 


g 


(2) 


cut July 27, 1892. 


h 


(2) 


cut Sept. 15, 1892. 


i 


(2) 


cut Feb. 23, 1892. 


J 


(2) 


cut July 27, 1892. 



WHEN TO PRUNE 



105 



Fig. 91. 


— k 
1 


(2) 
Ba] 




m 


(1) 




n 


(1) 







(1) 




P 


(1) 


Fig. 92. 


— q 


(1) 




r 


(1) 




s 


(2) 




t 


(2) 




u 


(2) 




V 


(2) 




w 


(2) 




X 


(2) 




y 


(2) 




z 


(2) 




zz 


(2) 




zzz 


(1) 



(2) cut JuJy 27, 1892. 
Baldwin, cut May 26, 1892. 

cut Oct. 31, 1891. 

cut Jan. 2!, 1892. 

cut Jan. 21, 1892, wood frozen. 

cut Oct. 12, 1891. 

cut Oct. 12, 1891. 

cut Oct. 12, 1891. 

cut Aug. 26, 1892. 

cut June 20, 1892. 

cut May 26, 1892. 

cut Mar. 25, 1892. 

cut June 23, 1892. 

cut Mar. 23, 1892. 

cut Feb. 23, 1892. 

cut Feb. 11, 1892. 

cut May 26, 1892. 

cut Dec. 19, 1891, wood frozen. 



Every month, except April, is represented in 
these incisions. Let us pick out the wounds 
which are healing well. They are Fig. 89, all 
of Fig. 90, and e, f, i, j, k, 1, m, w, y, z. These 
were made in the months of February, March, 
May, June, July, October, November, December, 
—nine months. The wounds which are not heal- 
ing well are g, h, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, zz, zzz. 
These were made in January, March, May, June, 
July, August, September, October, December, — 
nine months. Comparisons giving similar re- 
sults could have been made on a more extended 
scale and for every month in the year, from 




89. Ideal results in the healing of a large wound. Four years' 

growth of callus. A smaller wound on the lower 

side entirely closed. 



WHEN TO PRUNE 107 

the wounds which are not reported in these pic- 
tures. 

We are forced to conclude that some factor 
other than season is the most important in de- 
termining the healing of these wounds. It re- 
quires but a superficial examination of the pic- 
tures to show that these important factors are 
two, — the position of the wound in the tree, 
and the length of the stub ; and of these the 
former is the more important. Wounds on 
strong limbs, especiallj^ those which are vertical 
or ascending, heal best (compare Fig. 89, Fig. 
90, and e, i, j, k, 1, ra, w, }-)• Very long stubs die 
back, instead of healing (see n, o, p). Wounds 
lying close to the parent branch heal best, and 
those cut beyond the bulge or shoulder are inter- 
mediate between these and the very long stubs. 
(Compare, in the first category. Fig. 89, b, bb, 
bbb, c, cc, ccc, ddd, e, i, j, k, 1, m, w, y, z; and 
in the second category, d, dd, f , h, q, r, s, t, v, x, 
zzz.) 

Three of the wounds were made when the wood 
was solidly frozen. Of these, bb is healing well, 
showing that pruning when the wood is frozen 
does not of itself delay the healing process. 
(See Section 3, Chapter IV., for a further dis- 
cussion of this question.) Wounds o and zzz 
are not healing well, but the reason is to be sought 
in the position and nature of the wound, not in the 
fact that the wood was frozen at time of cutting. 




.. \M« 


» •'' 


f^^ 


^^m 




^^ 


P 



bbb 




^'^ 






















^p^^ 


^^^ 


^^-CS 


'\S 




^m 


^^ 




i^P 


% 


1 jJjBfn 


ImI ff^ 


>^l'l 


FfWaifc 


Sn^iu 


**^^ 


^ 


^jS^" 


-V' ^VmujMI 




^»''9W 



cc 



ccc 




(id ddd 

90. The healing of wounds. 



DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS 109 

The conclusion, — and my general opinion, — 
in respect to season of pruning, so far as the 
healing of wounds is concerned, is this : The 
ideal time is in spring, before growth begins 
(late February, March and early April in New 
York) , but more depends on the position of 
the wound in the tree and the length of stub 
than on the time of year. 

Dressings for wounds. — Having now obtained 
a general conception of the nature of the healing 
process, we are prepared to understand that a 
dressing for a wood wound must possess two 
properties, — it must check the weathering of the 
wound, and it must prevent the growth of bac- 
teria and fungi; and it must also be of such a 
nature as not to injure the cambium and bark. 
In other words, the ideal dressing is a protective 
compound and an antiseptic. It does not hasten 
the healing process, except as it prevents decay. 
It is preservative and preventive. 

It follows from the above considerations that 
the first thing to be sought in a wound dressing 
is durability. Paint and tar answer this require- 
ment. It should also have intimate contact with 
the wood. Wax and shellac do not satisfy this 
requirement, for they tend to peel off and to 
crack. Lead paint and tar are antiseptics, whereas 
wax, shellac, tallow and the like, are not, Bor- 
deaux mixture is also an almost perfect anti- 








._- JS?^ 







m 




n 



o 



91. The healing of wounds. 



DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS 111 

septic, and if it had the power of persisting and 
of preventing checking or weathering, it would 
be an ideal wound dressing. On quick -healing 
wounds it can be used with great satisfaction, as 
we shall discover later ; and it is a question if it 
would not pay to thoroughly spray trees, from 
which many small limbs have been cut, with the 
mixture. This advice has other recommendations 
than its suggestion for the preserving of wounds, 
for Bordeaux mixture is an excellent general fun- 
gicide; it cleans the trunks and branches of lichen 
or "moss;" and it probably exerts the same in- 
fluence as the washing of trees in softening the 
bark and preventing the parts from becoming 
bark -bound (see page 78). 

Paint and tar are the dressings most universally 
recommended. Tar and coal-tar are popular with 
foresters, but it is certain that they often injure 
the cambium and bark of fruit trees. Dressings 
of tar, and even bandages of tarred paper, made 
to protect plants from borers, often destroy the 
bark, particularly on young trees. Des Cars 
strongly advises coal-tar for forest trees, but 
makes this remark respecting its use on fruit- 
trees: "The application of coal-tar should not be 
made except with considerable caution in the 
treatment of wounds on drupaceous fruits (cher- 
ries, peaches, plums, etc.), and especially on the 
plum tree. It has often been observed that the 
bark of fruit-trees of this class has suffered from 




92. The healing of wounds. 



DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS 113 

the application of coal-tar. This is not the case, 
however, with pome -bearing trees (apples, pears, 
etc.); to these coal-tar may be applied with per- 
fect safety.'' Card reports* that in experiments 
in Nebraska "coal-tar seems to have been a posi- 
tive hindrance to the healing process, not one 
wonnd having been reported as healing extremely 
well." It is not said, however, whether the tar 
injured the tissues, or whether the apparent re- 
sults may not have been due to the position and 
character of the wound quite as much as to the 
dressing. In my own experiments, which I have 
already reported (pages 104 to 109), tar did no 
damage. In fact, the rapid -healing wound bbb, 
Fig. 90, was dressed with tar. In those experi- 
ments, paint, grafting -wax, linseed oil and tallow 
were also used, but all the differences in the 
healing of the wounds were evidently the result 
of other conditions than the dressings. I will 
expand my affirmation on page 109 to read: The 
position of the wound on the tree and the nature 
of the cut exert more influence in determining 
the healing than either the season in which the 
wound is made, or the kind of dressing which it 
receives. 

My conclusion is, after having had the question 
in mind for a decade, that a heavj^ application of 
lead paint is the best all-round dressing for com- 



*Notes on Pruning, Bull. 50, Nebraska Experiment Station. 
H 



114 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 

mou pruning wounds; and this, I believe, is the 
commonest opinion with careful orchardists. 

How TO MAKE THE CUT. — I haVC jUSt Spokcu 

of the "nature of the cut." I refer to both 
the length of the stub and the smoothness of 
the wound. The length of stub has been dis- 
cussed (Figs. 84-87). 

If the danger to wood wounds arises mostly 
from the absorption of moisture and the entrance 
of germs from the atmosphere, then it must fol- 
low that a wound which is smooth and solid is 
better than one which is haggled or splintered. 
We can conceive, too, that the progress of the cal- 
lus would be greatly obstructed 
by notches and splinters. 

Most of my readers — assuming 
that I shall have such — need no 
explanation of Fig. 93. The dis- 
aster would have been pre- 
P; 'WM ^V^ vented if the operator had cut 
the limb as suggested in Fig. 

93. Careless pruning, „ . . , • « j -, 

94. A cut IS first made as at a, 
sawing the limb half in two, and then the cut is 
made at h. The stub is then sawn off close, as 
shown in Fig. 87. Every pains should be taken 
to prevent the splitting of the wound or the 
tearing away of the bark, for ragged wounds 
seldom heal without becoming seriously diseased. 
Although this is not the proper place for the 




MAKING THE WOUND 



115 



discussion of pruning tools (see Chap. V.), it may 
nevertheless be said that for the severing of large 
limbs no tool leaves a better wound than a sharp 
saw. If the wound is not torn or split by the 




94, How to prevent the 
splitting of the wound. 



weight of the limb, it will not be necessary to 
smooth the cut with a knife,— as some persons 
recommend. Chisels leave good wounds, although 
they are likely to split the wound near its upper 
side when they are operated from the ground 
with a mallet. It is surprising how careless 
many people are in the making of wounds on 
trees. Axes and hatchets are often brought into 
requisition, and the operator goes at his work as 
he would at a stick of timber. Leonard Coates' 
remark will apply to more states than one : " Many 
pruners in California have mistaken their voca- 
tion: they are carpenters." 



116 



THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 



THE MENDING OF TBEES 

Plants are exposed to injuries of storm, weather- 
ing, and animals, and to the disasters which result 
from the struggle for existence ; and they are 
maimed by careless pruners and workmen. Many 
of these injuries can be repaired, and the preced- 
ing discussions will help us to understand how. 
A few cases may be explained, however, as a 
means of further elucidating the subject. 

Label wires were carelessly left on the trunks 

of young trees. The re- 
sults are seen in Figs. 95 
and 96. It will be noticed 
that the larger diameter is 
above the girdle. This is 
easy of explanation. We 
have already found (page 17) that 
the materials taken in by the roots 
are not directly available or useful 
in the making of plant tissue. They 
ascend to the leaves, and are there 
95. The mischiev- elaborated, in connection with ma- 
ous label wire, tcrial taken from the air, into organ- 
ized compounds, or become incor- 
porated with such compounds. These organic 
compounds — of which starch is the chief — are 
transferred to every part of the plant to build 
up its tissues. The transfer takes place in the 
inner layers of bark; therefore, whatever food 




EFFECTS OF GIRDLING 



117 



passes down the stem is intercepted at the girdle 
and is there deposited as abnormal tissue. Fig. 
97 shows how a gir- 



dled pine tree lived, 
and piled up tissue 
above the barrier, 
until the roots were 
starved and the tree 



Q-2' inches 




96. Ruined by a 
label wire. 



34 inches 
97. A girdled pine. The lower 
part had four annual circles 
of wood and the upper part 
eight circles. 



di^d. All these remarks have a direct bearing on 
the question of ringing, which we shall discuss 
in Chapters IV. and V. 



118 



THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 



The careful observer will often see the callus 
of wood wounds growing most rapidly from the 
upper side. In Fig. 88 the bark has grown down 
over the wound. In Fig. 75, the point of union 
of the opposite sides of the callus 
ring is at &. This stub stood hori- 
zontal on the tree, and h was the 
lower side. The union of cion and 
stock sometimes acts as an obstruc- 
tion to the free downward movement 
of sap, causing a bulge on old 




98. Suggestion to prevent gall- 
ing of a staked tree. 



99. Bridge-grafting 
of a girdled trunk. 



top -grafted trees; but this phenomenon should 
not be confounded with the normally more rapid 
growth of some cions, due to the variety, as com- 
pared with that of the stock (see Fig. 133, Nur- 



TREATMENT OF GIRDLED TREES 119 

sery-Book) . The reader will also notice the depo- 
sition of tissue above the braces in Fig. 107. 
* We now see the importance of preventing the 
girdling of trees by label wires and by careless 
tying to stakes; but we are also informed that a 
girdle is not necessarily fatal to a tree. If the 
young wood remains live and moist, the crude 
food materials may pass up from the roots, and 
the plant continues to live for some time, and in 
the case of coniferous trees, often for several 
years. If the girdle is made early in the season, 
the tree may cover the girdle with bark the same 
year, and thus live on; but if the girdle is made 
late in the season, the sap wood is likely to dry 
out and die, and the tree to perish before the 
return of another season. If it is desired to kill 
trees quickly by girdling them, the girdle should 
extend through the sapwood. 

In the treating of girdled trees, it is first nec- 
essary to see that the exposed wood does not 
become dry and diseased. Trim away the rough 
edges of bark, apply an antiseptic (a wash of 
Bordeaux mixture is to be recommended), then 
cover the entire surface with melted wax* and 
bind it up with cloth bandages. Fruit trees may 



*Maiiy recipes for tree-waxes may be foimd in "The Nursery-Book." 
The following is excellent: Into a kettle place one part by weight of 
tallow, two parts of beeswax, four parts of rosin. When completely 
melted, pour into a tub or pail of cold water, then work it with the 
hands (which should be greased) until it develops a grain and becomes 
the color of taffy candy. 



120 THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 

be saved in this way, even if the girdles com- 
pletely encircle the tree and if they are as much 
as a foot long, providing the trees are vigorous, 
and the treatment is applied before the wood 
becomes hard and dry. 

If the tree is particularly choice, or if the girdle 
is unusually serious or of long standing, and 
especially if the wounds extend into the wood, 
it may be advisable to supply a connection be- 
tween the separated parts of the trunk. Fig. 99 
explains how this may be done. The edges of the 
girdle are trimmed, and cions are inserted under 
the bark so as to bridge the wound. These cions 
are cut to a wedge shape on either end as for 
ordinary cleft -grafting,* and they are inserted 
between the bark and wood. A cloth bandage is 
tied about each edge of the wound, to hold the 
bark in place over the cions, and melted wax is 
then poured over the entire work, covering the 
exposed wood and also the edges of the bark for 
a couple of inches or more back from the wound. 
It will do no harm if the cions are buried in the 
wax. Care should be taken that the cions do not 
send out shoots from their buds. Some persons 
prefer to cut the buds from the cions to avoid 
this difficulty, but it is probably better to leave 
the buds on, inasmuch as their effort to grow may 
hasten a union. Fig. 100 is a cross -section of 



*The Tvhole subject of grafting is explained in "The Nursery-Book." 



BRIDGE -GRAFTING 121 

such a bridge -grafted tree, as it looked seventeen 
years after the work was done. This specimen was 
reported in The Rural N'ew-Yorker in 1892 by Leroy 
Whitford; the picture is reproduced from that paper. 




Cross-section of bridge-grafted tree. 

Body wounds on trees may be treated in the 
same way as girdles, — dress the edges back to live 
bark, scrape out all splintered and decayed wood, 
apply Bordeaux mixture or paint (or other anti- 
septic), then cover with wax. Fig. 101 shows 



122 



THE HEALING OP WOUNDS 



such a wound properly trimmed and cleaned. It 
was a case of disease starting at a knot. The 
knot has been wholly cut away, and all diseased 
tissue is removed. If decay is now checked, the 
healing callus will soon cover the 
area. This will at once suggest what 
is to be done with the dead patches 
of bark left by body attacks of 
pear -blight, borers, injury from sun- 
scald, gnawing by horses, loose bark, 
and the like. 

It is but a step from these cases to 
those of the splitting of the trunk 
by cold, concerning the treatment 
of which so many questions are 
asked. Fig. 102 is a sweet cherry 
tree which was split to the heart by 
a cold winter and then neglected. 
The bark has rolled back through 
the action of alternate wetness and 
dryness, the wood has become life- 
less and the crack has gaped. Fig. 
103 is a peach tree which was 
similarly injured; but in this case 
the bark was trimmed back to the 
quick as soon as spring opened and the injury 
discovered, and the area was painted with Bor- 
deaux mixture. At the end of the same year, the 
wound was nearly healed, and the tree is prob- 
ably the better for the accident, since the pressure 




101. Treatment 

of a body 

wound. 



TREATMENT OF SPLIT TREES 



123 



of a hide -bound trunk has been released. In 
these cases of splitting it is very important that 
the bark be trimmed back at once, before it be- 
gins to roll and loosen it- 
self; for as often as the 
bark rolls the healing is 
interfered with and forced 4 





102. A neglected weather split. 



103. A treated split. 



further back from the original wound. In the 
cherry and some other trees, there is a strong 
tendency for the bark to roll, and in such cases 
it is advisable to bind the wound with cloths, 
having first applied melted wax to keep the 
parts fresh and soft. 



124 THE HEALING OP WOUNDS 

Among the most difficult wounds to treat are 
the rotten cavities following careless pruning. 
Such a cavity is seen in Fig. 71. The decay has 
often progressed so far that it cannot be checked; 
The things to be done are to remove all diseased 
tissue and then to close the cavity. Cut out the 
rotten and discolored tissue with a knife or bore 
it out with an auger. Then soak it with an 
antiseptic. Now drive a plug of wood tight into 
the hole (A, Fig. 104), paint the surface, trim the 
edges of the wound to live tissue, and let nature 
take her course. Large wounds 
are sometimes covered with tin 
or zinc. This is good as far as 
it goes, but the diseased tissue 
should first be removed. It is 
impossible, however, to cover the 
wound so tight with the metal as 
to keep out germs. If the cavity 
is securely plugged, and the sur- 
104. Plugging face smoothed and kept painted, 
a cavity. ^j^^ rcsults will usually be better. 

What is to be done in such a case as Fig. 105? 
It would probably be best to cut off the limbs at 
A and B, and allow the remaining branch to form 
the top. In that case, the wound at A must be 
trimmed back smooth and clean, and painted or 
otherwise protected. It may be desirable, how- 
ever, to save the broken part. In that case, head 
it back, raise it into position, and bolt it fast. 




TREATMENT OF CROTCHES 



125 



An iron bolt may be run through the base, hold- 
ing it securely in place, and a brace may be sup- 
plied higher up, as shown in Fig. 106. These 
bolts are run through the trunk or branches and 
drawn up with a nut. Both the nut and the head 




105. In need of repairs. 



of the bolt should be large, so that they will not 
draw into the wood. The bolt should fit tight 
in the auger hole. When the work is done, apply 
paint or other covering at the place where the 
bolt emerges. The bolt will soon be buried, as 
the nail is buried in Fig. 76, and the tree does 
not suffer. 



126 



THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 




Very large branches may be raised and secured 
in this way. Be careful to keep the old split well 

'I'l covered with wax or 

thick paint. If it is 
necessary to apply 
long braces in the 
top of the tree, it is 
often advisable to run 
short bolts through 
the branches, and on 
the inner ends to have 
hooks or eyes into 
which another rod 
or a chain may be 
secured, thus allow- 
ing for the moving 
of the branches in the wind. It is a common 
practice to support crotches and weak branches 
by putting bands or chains about them, but the 
reader will at once see that this is wrong; and 
Fig. 107 will fix the error in his mind. 

There is still another way of treating such cases 
as Fig. 105. If a stub is left by the breaking of 
the limb, the stump may be smoothed and cions 
set in it freely, the remaining top being shortened- 
in at the same time. One or two good branches 
may be obtained from the cions, and the symmetry 
of the tree be thereby restored. In Fig. 108, the 
large branch on the right was grown from a cion 
set between the bark and wood in a splintered 



106. Crotch held by a bolt. 



BRACING A CROTCH 



127 



stub (which terminated at a) six inches in di- 
ameter. 

The ideal treatment is to prevent the crotch 
from splitting. This can be done by not having 
the crotch, or by bracing it before it shows signs 
of weakness. The 
bolt (Fig. 107) may 
be used for this pur- 
pose. A living brace 
may be grown over 
the crotch, as shown 
in Figs. 109 and 110. 
Two small limbs, 
preferably not larger 
than the little finger, 
arising from opposite 
branches, are twisted 
tightly together, the 
free ends being al- 
lowed to project as they may beyond the oppo- 
site branch. 

In a year or so the bark of the two will begin 
to knit together, at which time the free tips — and 
many shoots which have arisen from lateral buds — 
are headed -back or removed. As the branches 
continue to unite, the leafy parts are curtailed, 
and in a few years a perfectly solid and continuous 
living brace will be formed from limb to limb. 
Fig. 109 is from an actual example, which the 
writer has had under observation for more years 




Fig. 107. Right and wrong meth- 
ods of bracing a crotch. 



128 



THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 



than he cares to admit. Fig. 110 was made in a 
different way. The brace is a single branch aris- 
ing at the right. When as large as one's finger, 
it was thrust through a slit made through the 
branch at the left, allowing it to project two 







'^^, 
/ 



108. A repaired apple tree. 

or three feet beyond the wound. It soon grew 
fast, and the free part was then removed; the 
result is a perfect union and a strong living 
brace. 

In closing this sketch of tree surgery, I must 
enter my protest against reckless treatment of 
street trees. The most wanton and inconsiderate 



DUTY TOWARDS STREET TREES 129 

despoiler of shade trees at present is the lineman 
who runs telephone and telegraph wires. He 
generally has no appreciation of the value of a 
tree, and still less of any need of giving thought 
to the proper cutting of the limbs. Everything 




109. Living brace in a Talman Sweet apple tree. 

is secondary and subsidiary to the lining of the 
wires, and the result is that many fine trees are 
wickedly sacrificed. Our duty towards street 
trees is vigorously set forth in the following 
sketch by Professor Farlow:* 

"I must not, however, close my remarks on 
this subject without uttering an emphatic protest 
against the way in which the shade trees of our 



*W. F. Farlow, "Diseases of Trees likely to Follow Mechanical In- 
juries". Lecture before Mass. Hort. Soc, Mar. 7, 1891. 



I 



130 



THE HEALING OF WOUNDS 



cities and towns are treated. The responsibility 
rests not only with those who, perhaps uninten- 
tionally and ignorantly, are directly guilty of 
what an enlightened public opinion should regard 
as vandalism ; but it rests in part on ourselves, 
if we do not in all possible ways seek to give 
information to the public, and attempt by all 
legal means to secure the enforcement of such 
regulations as shall assure proper protection for 
our trees. As it is, the care of the trees in our 
public grounds, parks, and streets is too often 
placed in the hands of those who are ignorant 
of the principles of vegetable physiology, and 

their efforts to prune 
and cut down trees 
J\^ are guided only by 
what seems to them 
temporary conven- 
ience, or by what 
commends itself to 
their not infrequently 
perverted sense of 
the beautiful. When 
the whim seizes them 
and they wish to get 
rid of a stately tree, 
it is only necessary for them to say that it is 
rotten, and dangerous because likely to fall. 
Many times I have seen trees whose shade could 
ill be spared, cut down because their trunks were 




110. 



Living brace in a Newtown 
Pippin apple tree. 



OUR DUTY TOWARDS TREES 131 

rotten, when examination after they were felled 
showed that they were sonnd and wonld have 
lasted many years. It onght to be considered a 
crime to cut down a handsome tree — certainly in 
public grounds — unless compelled by absolute 
necessity. When it is thought necessary for the 
public safety to destroy animals supposed to be 
suffering from contagious diseases, there is, at 
least, a consultation, and the opinion of experts 
is asked. I hope that the time will come when 
it will not be allowed to cut down trees which 
are public property, except on the advice of 
those whose training entitles them to be called 
experts. 

"If one is amazed sometimes at the abuses of 
trees on the part of those who are their author- 
ized guardiafis, it must be admitted that the poor 
condition of our trees is principally due to the 
recklessness of the public. * * * In most of our 
streets the trees are very near the edge of the side- 
walk, if they do not project into the street itself. 
Those on the corners of the streets are almost sure 
to be grazed by passing vehicles, and as wagon 
after wagon passes along, the grinding process is 
kept up until the wood is exposed. It is per- 
haps fortunate that such trees are short-lived, 
for they become very unsightly, and when they 
die, the curbstone can be replaced as often as 
is necessary. 

"Walk along any of our streets where the 



132 THE HEALING OP WOUNDS 

trees are placed on the edge of the sidewalk, 
and notice the eifects due to our general negli- 
gence. In some instances you will find that 
the house -owners have placed guards around 
the trunks, and the trees are symmetrical and 
have attained a good size. But in most cases, 
they have been left to take care of themselves. 
Bright and early the milkman comes along and 
jumps off with his can, leaving his horse to 
make a scanty breakfast by gnawing the bark 
of the nearest tree. Later on come the butcher 
and the grocer, whose horses lunch upon what 
was left by their predecessor, inflicting an 
amount of damage to the tree limited only by 
the length of time which their owners are pleased 
to spend in conversation with the girls in the 
kitchen. Last of all comes, perhaps, the doctor, 
whose visits, if they are not frequent, are pro- 
portionally long. He, at least, ought to know 
that trees cannot be wounded with impunity. 
No wonder that the bark is not only soon re- 
moved and the wood exposed, but since the 
horse is an animal which prefers the softer bark 
to the harder wood, the fresh borders of the 
wound are repeatedly attacked, until deformities 
of enormous size are produced, and, apart from 
the danger of fungous growths, the nutrition 
of the tree is seriously deranged." 



Chapter TV 



THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

We are now prepared to enter on a discussion 
of some of the more fundamental considerations 
governing the rational pruning of plants. It is 
difficult to write on pruning, from the fact that no 
two plants are alike, and many and various objects 
are to be attained. It is impossible to instruct 
any person in pruning by merely showing him how 
to do the work on a given plant ; for the very 
next plant may present a new set of problems. 
If there are no generalizations or principles to be 
enunciated, then writing on the subject is well 
nigh useless. 

It is astonishing how few lucid conceptions there 
are of the problems at issue in pruning, and of 
the factors which modify the results. There is no 
literature which seems to clearly analyze the whole 
subject, at least from the fruit-grower's stand- 
point, and to present any consecutive body of 
laws upon which the intending operator can act. 
It is unavoidable, therefore, that the present 
sketch should be far from complete and satis- 
factory. 

There are two great classes of ideas concerned 

(133) 



134 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

in the pruning of plants, — those which are asso- 
ciated directly with the welfare and behavior of 
the plant, and those which are associated with the 
mere form or size to which the plant shall attain. 
The former includes questions of pruning proper; 
the latter comprises questions of training, which 
depend primarily on the taste and abilities of the 
pruner. Shall I grow my trees to round heads or 
conical heads, high heads or low heads, one trunk 
or two trunks ? Whichever you like. It is largely 
a question of personal preference and opportunity, 
as it is whether you shall plow with horses or 
oxen, build a rail fence or board fence, or plant 
Ben Davis or Baldwin apples. 

Of all the operations connected with the grow- 
ing of trees and shrubs, pruning and training- 
bring the person into closest contact and sym- 
pathj^ with the plant. One shapes and cares for 
the plant tenderly and thoughtfullj^ working out 
his ideals as he would in the training and guiding 
of a child. There are some persons, to be sure, 
who cannot feel this sympathetic contact with a 
plant : they are the ones who, if they prune at 
all, use an axe or a corn -knife. If a person can- 
not love a plant after he has pruned it, then he 
has either done a poor job or is devoid of emo- 
tion. It is a pleasure to till the soil and to smell 
the fresh crumbly earth, but the earth does not 
grow ; it is still a clod. The plant responds to 
every affectionate touch. Spraying, that modern 



WHY WE PRUNE 135 

evolution of horticulture, is not to be compared 
with pruning in producing a sense of fellowship 
with plants. In fact, spraying has the opposite 
eifect with me. When I have sprayed a plant, I 
am conscious that I have besmeared it, and have 
taken a mean advantage of a lot of innocent 
and defenseless bugs ; and I want to quit the 
premises forthwith. 

We shall now try to find a few general state- 
ments, upon which we can all agree, respecting the 
principles which underlie the practice of pruning 
and training. Some of these principles follow 
from a general consideration of the way in which 
a plant lives and grows, some of them are re- 
statements or summaries of discussions in the 
preceding chapters, and others are suggested by 
direct experiment. All of them are intended to 
be general truths, not statements of specific facts. 
Writings on .pruning are usuallj' confusing, be- 
cause they are a mass of details, facts and opin- 
ions, with little eifort to arrive at laws or prin- 
ciples. I advise beginners not to read them. 
Principles must come first if practice is to be 
satisfactory. The details are to be worked out on 
the plant itself, after the operator has learned 
why. Before entering upon this disputed ground, 
we may pause to say that the reasons for pruning 
may be ranged under eight general heads: 

1. To modify the vigor of the plant. 

2. To produce larger and better fruits or flowers. 



136 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

3. To keep the plant within manageable shape 
and limits. 

4. To change the habit of the plant from more 
or less wood -bearing or fruit -bearing (or flower- 
bearing) . 

5. To remove superfluous or injured parts. 

6. To facilitate spraying and harvesting. 

7. To facilitate tillage and to improve the con- 
venience of the plantation. 

8. To train the plant to some desired form. 

1. Heavy pruning of the toj) of a plant tends to 
increase the production of wood for strong 
vegetative growth). 

A plant growing under normal conditions has a 
perfect balance of top and root. The top and 
root mutually supplj^, support and nourish each 
other. The one must respond to the other. The 
more root, the greater the amount of crude ma- 
terials taken in; and the greater the amount of 
these materials, the greater must be the elaborat- 
ing leaf surface, and the greater, therefore, the 
growth of all parts of the plant. If a large part 
of the top is removed and the root is untouched, 
the balance is broken. An equal amount of root 
supplies a smaller amount of top. There is more 
food for all the remaining branches. The re- 
sult is greater growth of these parts than they 
normally would have made ; or new parts — suckers 
—may arise. Let the reader recall the crab -apple 



HEAVY PRUNING MAKES WOOD. 



137 



trees described on pages 15, 16, or let him con- 
sider the behavior of the dwarf pear tree in Fig. 
111. All these considerations explain the gar- 
dener's rule that in roses 
and other ornamental 
plants, the weak kinds 
should be heavily pruned 
and the strong kinds 
lightly pruned.* 

If it is necessary to re- 
sort to severe pruning for 
the purpose of correcting 
the shape or training 
of a plant, and it is de- 
sired at the same time to 
avoid excessive growth, 
the operator should re- 
move the superfluous 
parts gradually. This 
caution is important, 
even in the training of 
herbaceous plants. A 
grower of winter toma- 
toes writes me as follows 
on this point: "I find 
that when planted thickly in the beds the foliage 
needs heavy trimming to keep it within bounds; 
and would say further of this trimming that it 




111. Heavy pruning produces 
wood (in this case, a pro- 
fusion of watersprouts). 



*See, for example, Ernest Walker, in "Garden-Making," page 298. 



138 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

must be done frequently, aud only a moderate pro- 
portion of the leafage removed at one time, for 
if heavy trimming is indulged, it will cause a 
fresh, strong growth which splits open the partly 
developed fruits, exposing the interior or seed 
cells of the fruit and rendering it unfit for 
sale. Our practice is to remove the outer end 
of the leaf and afterwards take off a joint 
at a time as the leaves on the inner part increase 
in size under the trimming, as the first two leaf- 
lets on the leaf stalk eventuallj^ attain almost as 
large size as the entire leaf under ordinarj^ treat- 
ment. The gardener tells me that the splitting of 
the fruits would also result from stopping the 
ends of the shoots while the plants are still in 
growth. Of course, the fresh shoots coming up 
from the roots would tend to overcome this vigor- 
ous growth of the plants and consequent splitting." 

2. Heavy iwiming of the root tends to lessen 
the production of ivood. 

The food supply is cut off. Root -pruning is to 
be compared to poor feeding. The reader knows 
that he prunes the tops of transplanted plants 
because the roots have been cut, and he must 
thereby reduce the area to be supported. Root- 
pruning is practicable chiefly in the growing of 
specimen plants, or in small amateur plantations, 
particularly when trees are trained on walls, cor- 
dons, and the like. (Consult Chapter V.) 



REJUVENATING THE PLANT 139 

3. Heavy pruning of the top tends to rejuve- 
nate weak or declining plants. 

This is because the remaining parts receive more 
food. The proposition is really a corollary of 
Section 1, but it has such distinct and important 
applications that it is well to give it an indepen- 
dent statement. When plants begin to fail from 
general debility (not from the attacks of insects or 
fungi), manure or prune them heavily, or do both. 
It is generally best to remove the weakest parts, 
particularly if the decline has progressed far ; but 
if it is desired to save the particular branches 
which are involved, a heavy pruning of the healthy 
parts may be expected to throw new activity into 
the weak ones In many cases, however, it is im- 
possible to rejuvenate weak branches ; but suck- 
ers or watersprouts may be developed, and these 
may form a new head. Old and decrepit peach 
trees are often headed -back severely for the ex- 
press purpose of securing this new wood. The 
tops of birches, maples and other ornamental trees 
sometimes show signs of failing. If there are no 
borers or other specific troubles, the tree should 
be heavily pruned, and if the trunk and roots are 
sound, renewed activity may be expected. 

Under Section 1 (page 136) we found that weak 
kinds or varieties of plants should be pruned 
severely and strong kinds moderately. These re- 
marks were meant to appl}^ to plants of different 
habits, not to weakness due to disease or debilitj^ ; 



140 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

yet the rule holds good in either case, — heavy 
pruning for wood, light pruning to maintain the 
habitual condition. One must be careful, how- 
ever, not to apply these contrasts to differing 
branches on the same plant, for it is a fact that 
one branch may appropriate the food of another 
(see Section 6) ; if, therefore, it is desired to even 
up the branches on any plant, prune the strong 
shoots severely and the others only moderately, and 
thereby throw the energy into the weaker shoots. 
This type of pruning is often done in the summer. 
"Meehan's Monthly" gives the following advice 
on this point: "This summer pruning is espe- 
cially effective with coniferous trees. In the case 
of pines, we know that in the springtime three or 
four branches push out at the end of last year's 
sprouts, looking like gas burners. The central 
one is very vigorous and those on the sides are 
weaker. If we pinch out the point of the stronger 
ones the sap at once flows into the weaker ones, 
and they become strong, and new buds form at 
the place where the strong one was pinched off. 
Next year this bud continues the growth of the 
branch almost as straight as if it had never been 
pinched-back. We can pinch off the terminal bud 
of the main stem, a new bud forming a leader 
without any bend. One who understands this 
business of summer pruning of evergreens can so 
manage that trees form an absolutely perfect speci- 
men from the ground to the top, no one branch 



WINTER -INJURED PLANTS 141 

being any stronger than another. The chief thing 
to remember is that in snmmer prnning the weak 
branches of the shoot should not be touched ; it is 
only the stronger ones that require checking." 

These remarks have a most important bearing 
on the treatment to be given to severely winter - 
injured trees. My own thought about the mat- 
ter is expressed in the following quotation from 
" Principles of Fruit- Growing" : "The proper treat- 
ment for frozen-back trees must be determined 
for each particular case; but it should be borne 
in mind that the injured portion is no longer of 
use to the plant, whereas it may be a positive 
detriment by accelerating the evaporation of mois- 
ture. The best treatment for plants seriously 
injured upon the extremities is to cut them back 
very heavily. This severe heading -in— sometimes 
to the extent of three or four feet — removes the 
driest and weakest portions, and concentrates the 
energy of the tree into a comparatively small area 
of top. Heavy pruning always tends toward the 
production of wood, and this wood production 
is probably never more needed than in winter- 
injured trees, for it tends to renew the vitality of 
the tree. The philosophy of this becomes appar- 
ent upon a moment's reflection. The browned 
and injured wood can never regain its former 
usefulness. New tissue must be developed as 
quickly as possible, in order to carry forward and 
to maintain the vegetative energies. This new 



142 



THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 



tissue is laid on over the old, and the old, there- 
by, quickly becomes sealed in, so 
to speak, and removed from the 
agencies of decay. Every obser- 
vant fruit-grower knows that if 
a tree which is severely winter- 
injured in limb and trunk were to 
bear even a partial crop of fruit 
in the coming season, it would very 
likely die outright. If, however, 
all its energies were directed to 
the development of new tissue, 
the injury might soon be over- 
grown. The injured wood, like 
the heartwood of the tree, is soon 
removed from active participation 
in the vital processes. It there- 
fore follows that the danger re- 
sulting from the browning or 
blackening of the wood by winter- 
injury depends very 
much upon the sub- 
sequent treatment of 
the plant. Fig. 112 
shows the body of a 
young plum tree (in 
longitudinal and cross- 
wise sections) which 

112. Showing the new tissue „ ^ ^ . 

formed around winter-injured ^^S frozen black in 

wood. the severe winter of 




WINTER -INJURED PLANTS 143 

1895-6. It was heavily pruned in the spring 
of 1896, and in the fall had made a ring of bright 
new wood, which was amply sufficient to maintain 
the tree in perfect health for a long life. This 
appearance is common in nursery stock the year 
following a very hard winter, but such trees may 
not be permanently injured. 

"There are instances in which this heavy head- 
ing-back seems to do more harm than good. 
These are cases in which the entire tree is almost 
uniformly injured, and the plant seems to need 
the stimulus of all its buds to bring out the 
feeble life which is still left to it; but these cases 
are comparatively rare. It is probable that the 
greater number of reported instances of death 
due to heavy pruning of winter -injured trees are 
of such trees as would have died under any treat- 
ment. Winter -killed plants often retain suffi- 
cient vitality to enable them to leaf out or to 
bloom, and sometimes even to begin growth, but 
when the stored vitality of the tissues is ex- 
hausted the plant perishes. This explains the phe- 
nomenon which, after a bad winter, nearly always 
puzzles the unobservant fruit-grower, of trees 
starting into feeble growth, and then suddenly 
dying when warm and dry weather approaches." 

There are many unsolved problems associated 
with the pruning of winter- injured trees in very 
severe climates. There are evidently two factors 
concerned in the question,— the general effect of 



144 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

heavy pruning on the tree, and the injury result- 
ing from the wounds. In the dry and cold cli- 
mates of the North, Northwest and the Plains, 
there is excessive evaporation from winter-made 
wounds, and this injury may be so great as to 
make severe winter pruning inadvisable in many 
localities. (See Section 17.) It is therefore dif- 
ficult to judge of the merits of controversies con- 
cerning the advisability of the heavy pruning of 
winter -injured trees, particularly in severe cli- 
mates, because two or more unanalyzed problems 
may be involved. 

Since opinions differ as to the advisability of 
severely heading -back trees which are much in- 
jured by cold, I here insert extracts from letters 
of various fruit-growers in the Northwest, to 
whom I was referred by E. S. Goff, of the Uni- 
versity of Wisconsin. Professor Goff himself 
writes as follows: 

"I have discussed the question as to the advisability of 
pruning winter- injured trees with Wisconsin friends. Some 
of them are very positive that pruning such trees in spring 
has caused their death in several cases; also that similar 
trees not pruned until they had recovered vigor, have out- 
grown the effects of the winter and made good trees. The 
hypothesis that I have used to explain the opinions that 
such trees should not be pruned in spring is this: The 
buds, being enfeebled by cold, are not able to use a large 
quantity of water from the roots, and hence thinning out 
the buds, which naturally tends to increase the pressure of 
sap in the remaining ones, proves injurious. That this is 
true, I am by no means sure, but the fact that winter- 



PRUNING IN THE NORTHWEST 145 

injured trees often throw up many sprouts from the base 
of the trunk, seems to me evidence in the affirmative." 

Professor Budd, Iowa: "In cutting back injured parts 
of raspberry, blackberry, shrubs, or the orchard fruits in- 
jured by winter, I prefer to wait for the starting of the buds, 
and then cut to the point where the buds start in a healthful 
way. But in severe injury, such as that of the Florida 
orange trees, I gave the advice to cut before there was 
any show of buds." 

Professor Green, Minnesota: "I prefer to prune after the 
trees have leafed out quite a little, rather than early in the 
spring. Early spring pruning, and pruning just as the sap 
starts strongly, is liable to cause bad wounds, that heal 
slowly, and the wood is apt to die back in apple trees in this 
section when so pruned. But this latter trouble we some- 
times avoid by covering all the wounds with grafting-wax. 
Then, in the case of winter-injured wood, we can tell more 
certainly as to the extent of the injury, if the pruning is 
not done until the growth has started." 

O. M. Lord, Minnesota City, Minn.: "My experience 
with apple trees, though covering a period of more than 
forty years at this place, has been limited to few varieties 
and to my own grounds. I have found that it is alm.ost sure 
death to cut or trim apple trees at any time except when 
the trees have begun to leaf out. I do not know of any 
trees in the fruit line that will bear such severe cutting as 
the native plums, but I prefer to trim them when the foliage 
is nearly full." 

J. S. Harris, La Crescent, Minn.: "My opinion, based 
upon a long experience in this Northwest, is that if the 
injury is so great that any considerable portion of the top 
will need to be removed, the pruning had best be done as 
soon as the winter is broken, and long enough before spring 
opens that there shall be no starting of sap. The pruning 
shall extend down to uninjured wood and the wounds prop- 
erly covered. Where the injury is not so great as to re- 



146 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

quire the removal of much wood, I prefer the last half of 
June for such pruning. Our experience here is, the worst 
time of all for pruning is when the trees or buds are about 
ready to swell and start, until they are nearly fully open." 

A. J. Philips, Sec. Wisconsin Horticultural Society, West 
Salem, Wis.: "My plan with a tree that has been injured 
would be to prune it after the severe weather of winter is 
over, and before the tree exerts any of its weakened forces, 
to start growth on all the top, thereby concentrating its 
strength on a smaller surface. But in this trying climate I 
spend but little time trying to bring back trees that are 
badly injured. I much prefer to top work those varieties 
that are subject to injury on a known vigorous and hardy 
stock. My rule now is to top -work one hundred each year 
on three to five -year -old stocks, and my orchard is grad- 
ually increasing in value and productiveness." 

B. Wade Hewett, Pardeeville, Wis.: "My experience 
has taught me that the earlier trees can be pruned in the 
spring after severe freezing is past, the better. To be sure, 
sometimes trees are so badly tipped-back that it becomes 
necessary to wait for the selection of a leader until the 
biids are well swollen, but all possible trimming should be 
done before this. For best results, I would say, do all 
fruit-tree trimming before leaves break." 

Charles Hirschinger, Baraboo, Wis.: "Severely injured 
trees should not be pruned till the year following, not in 
the year of injury. If pruned, wait till after the leaves 
are half grown, or, better, till June first. Severely injured 
trees are sometimes killed by early pruning, or by pruning 
the same year that they were injured; but if- left till the 
next year, they frequently recover, and wounds heal over 
nicely, which is often not the case if pruned same year 
they are injured." 

George J. Kellogg, Janesville, Wis.: "Prune injured 
shade (except maples) trees in March after zero weather is 
past. Prune fruit trees after the weather will not get 



PRUNING FROZEN ORANGE TREES 147 

colder than 10° above zero. Farther south, where zero 
weather is not likely to prevail, prune shade and fruit trees 
any time in winter, at least thirty days before the buds are 
likely to open." 

The great Florida freezes of 1894-5 brought 
much discussion as to the proper methods of treat- 
ing frozen orange trees. Many persons cut the 
trees back to fresh wood, others practiced root- 
pruning at the same time to equalize root and top, 
and others did nothing. The last-named persons 
practically lost badly frozen trees. The writer 
studied the effects of the various treatments in the 
winter of 1896-7, and it seemed clear that vigor- 
ous cutting-back is to be recommended in such 
cases. Some of the best results were seen on the 
estate of H. S. Williams, at Rockledge, Fla.; and 
Mr. Williams' own advice* is here reprinted: 

"As a rule, all my trees were budded low, and on sour 
stocks. In April they began to show signs of life, vary- 
ing from two to fifteen feet from the ground. All the 
branches, with but few exceptions, were killed back to 
the main trunk. Some trees were killed to the ground 
on south side, while on the north they threw out vigorous 
sprouts up some two or three feet. * * * gome of the 
sprouts, high up on the trunk, where the wood did not have 
vigor enough to sustain life— a mere shell under the bark- 
have died the past summer, but not as many as I was led to 
expect. The crop of the season of 1894-95 was ten oranges. 
The present crop, 1895-96, may be 30 boxes. Owing to the 
excess of roots over the top, hence the excess of sap and 
food taken up by the roots, the fruit is somewhat coarse, 

*As given in Indian River Advocate, Dec. 4, 1896. 



148 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

while some trees have the red-rust, causing the fruit to split 
and drop. This disease, however, will rapidly disappear as 
the roots and tops become more evenly balanced. As some 
trees were flowing more sap than others when the last 
freeze struck them, so some were hurt much worse than 
others, even though standing side by side in the grove. 
The present condition of the trees, however, is, in the 
main, very satisfactory, and the fruit-bearing wood should 
give us a fair crop another season — say 20 or more boxes 
where we now count one. The rapid growth of this new 
fruit -producing wood will tax our ingenuity to the utmost 
to keep it from being crushed by its own weight, as these 
sprouts have, in many instances, but a thin shell of live 
wood to give them strength as against the wood fiber from 
the wood of the tree, as is the case with the tree in its 
normal condition. These sprouts, growing at an angle of 
some forty-five degrees, when weighed down with fruit will 
have to be artificially supported with the greatest care. * ^ 

" Profiting by the experience of the past, I would change 
but little in the work done to bring out my orange grove to 
the best advantage, and in the least possible time. If all 
the trunks of the trees had been well wrapped the morning 
after the second freeze, or better yet, the day before, if the 
Signal Service would give us the notice in time, it would, 
no doubt, prove of invaluable benefit. 

"Then I should advise the following treatment: Cut off 
the lower branches and cut top immediately above. The 
trees treated in this way, as before noted, are alive all 
around the trunk, and the branches and sprouts thrown out 
seem to be more firmly united with the trunk than any 
others. Cut all trees less than six years set close to the 
ground, and draw the dirt away from the collar, so as to ex- 
pose the surface roots slightly to the sun. As soon as prac- 
ticable, plow the grove, breaking as many roots as may 
come in contact with plow, and have a man follow with 
keen grub-hoe, and cut off all such roots smoothly. 



FROZEN GRAPE VINES 149 

"If one has a small grove, I would advise digging a 
trench fully ten inches deep, grading the distance from 
trunk according to size of tree, and cutting ofe all roots. 
Some trees treated in this way, a year after the freeze, 
show a marked improvement in the way of growth the sec- 
ond summer just passed. As soon as the sprouts from the 
ground get large enough, insert your buds and get them 
started as soon as possible. If you wait until the next 
spring the buds will make too rank a growth. * * * 

"Eegarding the number of buds that is best to let grow, 
there is a great diversity of opinion, and it will take years 
to decide positively what is really best. In all my younger 
trees, where the stump will probably heal over, I have 
adopted the rule to let only one grow, as we much prefer to 
have a single trunk only. In the case of old trees killed 
to the ground, I cannot but think that it will be a temporary 
make -shift at the best, to get a few oranges while the 
newly-set tree is growing, so that it really makes small 
difference whether two or half-a-dozen are grown. Never 
have we had such an opportunity to change our varieties." 

How to treat grape vines which are frozen 
after growth has begun is also a perennial ques- 
tion. Much will depend on the severity of the 
freeze, and on the amount of growth which had 
taken place. The following extract* is believed 
to explain the best method of procedure: "In 
proceeding to treat frozen vines, it must be 
borne in mind that the injured parts are of no 
further use to the plants, and they are very apt 
to weaken the plant by causing it to lose much 
of its moisture. The rational procedure, there- 

*« Principles of Fruit-Growing," p. 329. 



150 THE PRINCIPLES OP PRUNING 

fore, is to strip off all the frozen shoots soon 
after the disaster, so as to allow the energies of 
the plant to divert themselves to the production 
of new shoots. When the injured parts are soft 
and small, it is customary to remove them by 
pulling them off, rather than by cutting them 
off. In well pruned vineyards the cost of strip- 
ping ought not to exceed one dollar an acre." 

4. A pruned plant tends to resume its natural 
hahit. 

Every plant has individuality. One plant is un- 
like every other plant. It may be round-headed, 
conical-headed, very straight or strict, prostrate, 
and the like. In whatever way or however much 
the plant may be pruned, it immediately makes 
an effort to regain its former or habitual shape 
and behavior ; and the more vigorous the plant, 
the more rapidly and completely does it resume 
its former state. Vigorous firs and spruces make 
a new leader without difficulty; the Northern 
Spy tends to grow erect, however much it is 
pruned, whereas the Longfield tends as persis- 
tently to droop. It is evident, therefore, that 
the most rational pruning — when fruit and the 
welfare of the plant are chief concerns — is that 
which allows the plant to take its natural form, 
merely correcting its minor faults here and there. 
In a pear orchard, for example, there should be 
as many types or methods of pruning as there 



THE LEADER RENEWS ITSELF 151 

are varieties of pears. Arbitrary ideals are use- 
ful only when it is desired to sacrifice other 
considerations to mere form and looks. (See 
Chapter VI.) They are chiefly useful in the 
growing of plants for certain ornamental effects 
and when it is necessary, — because of lack of 
space, or uncongenial climate, or growing under 
glass — to train to some definite form. It is well 
to remember that mere handsomeness or comeli- 
ness of the plant is unimportant in fruit-growing. 
On this point, A. J. Downing writes as follows: 
"Every fruit tree, grown in the open orchard or 
garden as a common standard, should be allowed 
to take its natural form, the whole efforts of the 
pruner going no further than to take out all 
weak and crowded branches." 

One cannot visit a forest without seeing that 
pruned and injured trees tend to regain their for- 
mal stature. Observe how the leader was re- 
newed in Fig. 113, — a tree which was once broken 
over. The new leader, which sprung from the 
declined trunk, now continues the bole of the 
tree. In Fig. 114 several leaders have started from 
the prostrate trunks, each one simulating the 
upward growth of the original tree. These re- 
marks will also apply to the roots. It is the com- 
monest notion that a tap-root should not be cut, 
else the plant will be shallow -rooted; but a new 
tap — or, what may be better, two or three tap- 
roots — arises from the old (from a, Fig. 115). The 










.-.%'' 






*■• .f^ 



i 

113. Renewal of the leader in a broken tree. 



HABIT OF YOUNG PLANTS 



153 



tap-root is one of the ancestral bogies of horticul- 
turists ; and, like the sap, being out of sight, 
almost any assertion may be made of it without 
danger of disproof. The direction of the roots 
is much influenced by the particular piece of earth 
in which they grow, but beyond this, roots be- 




114. Renewal of leaders on trunks which were crushed 
to the horizontal. 

have essentially as branches do, in respect to 
pruning. 

5. The habit of the plant varies from youth to 
age. 

Young plants are vigorous and rapid -growing. 
They tend to make strong, upright growths. 
Eventually they reach a limit of stature, and the 
nearer they approach that epoch the less rapid is 
the growth. Fruit -bearing tends to reduce growth 
and to broaden the top. Young pear trees, par- 



154 



THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 



ticularly of the Kieffer type, make very long and 
erect growths, but when bearing -time arrives the 
growth is less marked and the limbs spread. The 
treatment of a young tree, therefore, may be very 
different from that demanded by the same tree 
when it arrives at maturity. 

6. One part of a plant may 
live at the expense of 
another part. 

We know that the plant 
cannot make use of the ma- 
terials taken in by the roots 
and leaves until these ma- 
terials have been elaborated 
in the green parts. The elab- 
orated material is distributed 
to every living and growing 
point. Some of this mate- 
rial is stored, particularly in 
the fall, and from this stored 
material the early bloom and 
growth of spring is partly 
and sometimes largely made. Strong spring 
shoots are supplied from other parts of the plant 
as well as from newly appropriated materials. 
On this point Sorauer writes* that "it must not 
be forgotten that at the commencement every 




115. Renewal of the 
leader on the root. 



*" Physiology of Plants for the Use of Gardeners," translated by 
Weiss, 146. 



WATERSPROUTS 155 

young shoot draws like a parasite upon the food 
matter of the older branch; this applies as much 
to the consumption of water as to the stored -up 
material." 

More than this, one shoot may rob another, and 
thereby grow the faster. Shoots may be both 
parasites and robbers. Very vigorous shoots 
rarely have leaf surface enough to supply their 
own needs. Being profusely supplied with water, 
they appropriate building materials which have 
been elaborated by other branches. Such shoots 
are watersprouts or suckers. Robbers should be 
arrested. 

7. Watersprouts are results of a disturbed equi- 
librium of the plant; and the formation 
of watersprouts is influenced more by the 
vigor of the plant and the amount of prun- 
ing than by the season of the year in 
which the pruning is done. 

This is really a corollary to Section 1. We 
know that heavy pruning produces wood, and 
this extra production may arise either as an 
elongation of existing shoots or in the origina- 
tion of wholly new shoots. When these new 
shoots are particularly lusty, they are water- 
sprouts. Fig. Ill explains the outcome of heavy 
pruning. 

■ If the reader agrees to the above propositions, 
then he must admit that the season of pruning 



156 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

has a very secondary influence on the production 
of watersprouts, however confidently he may have 
asserted to the contrary; for if the plant is not 
vigorous, and if the root force is not in excess of 
the top, watersprouts cannot arise. To be sure, 
watersprouts may follow the bending or twisting 
of the top, but even in this case the equilibrium 
of root and top is disturbed, as we shall find in 
Sections 10 and 13. 

It is probable that the season of pruning exerts 
some influence on the appearing of watersprouts. 
After midsummer, watersprouts cannot arise, as a 
rule, for growth has then ceased; and if the plant 
is pruned at that epoch it may have opportunity 
to re -adjust its energies before another year, and 
thereby exert its redundant forces rather more in 
the prolongation of existing growths than in the 
establishing of new ones. I must admit that this 
philosophy is difficult of proof (see Section 16), 
but it is as good an hypothesis as I can for- 
mulate to sustain what is a sound maxim of 
practice, viz., that the operator should not allow 
the fear of watersprouts to dictate the season of 
pruning. In fact, watersprouts are a result of 
pruning as weeds are of plowing, and the like- 
lihood of the appearing of either is in propor- 
tion to the preceding neglect. Subsequent prun- 
ing is the remedy for watersprouts, as tillage is 
for weeds. 



HEADING -IN 157 

8. The tendency of plants is to grow from the 

uppermost 'buds; and this tendency is most 
pronounced in young plants. 

We have had ample proof of this in Chapters 
I. and II. We know that it must be so, too, from 
the fact that it is the natural outcome of struggle 
for light and air, and from the fact that were it 
not so, strict -stemmed plants would grow broad 
rather than high. If these considerations do not 
satisfy the reader, let him go out and look. 

We may prune in such way as to maintain or 
augment this natural tendency, or to thwart it. 
The means of checking it are of two types, — 
hindering the upward flow of sap (as by girdling, 
notching, bending, twisting, and the like, discussed 
in Sections 10, 13, and in Chapter V.), and by 
heading -in. To consideration of the latter cate- 
gory we shall now proceed. 

9. The heading -in of young growths tends to 

develop the lateral and the dormant buds. 

That is, headed- in plants thicken and broaden 
their tops. The objects of heading- in are two, — 
to correct an objectionable habit, and to induce 
fruit -bearing. The latter consideration is dis- 
cussed specifically in Section 15. 

Inasmuch as the shape which a plant shall 
assume is largely a question of personal prefer- 
ence, it is impossible always to give good advice 
respecting the heading- in of trees and shrubs. 



158 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

The rational heading- in of trees for the purpose 
of correcting the habit devolves upon four con- 
ditions or factors, — the rapidity or amount of 
growth, the distance apart of the trees, whether 
the trees are dwarfs or standards, and the personal 
choice of the owner of the trees. 

In fruit trees, annual growths of three feet or 
more may be headed- in, particularly if the trees 
are close together and it is necessary to reduce the 
size of head. This operation is necessary only with 
young and unfruitful trees, as a rule, for we have 
found (Section 5) that mature and fruit -bearing 
trees rarely grow wantonly. If mature trees are 
making too much growth, the fundamental 
remedy is to check the growth rather than to 
cut it off, for heavy heading-in tends to augment 
the difficulty (Section 1). The growth may be 
checked by modifying the tillage or fertilizing of 
the plantation, unless the excessive growth is due 
to excessive pruning. 

In dwarf trees, it is essential that heading-in 
be practiced, in order that the top shall not 
overbalance the root. This question is discussed 
in its specific aspects in Chapter V. 

In general, the matter of heading-in resolves 
itself into a question of personal ideals. If the 
owner wants a thick -topped and round-headed 
tree, heading-in is necessary. If he wants a 
free -growing, open -centered tree, heading-in 
should be avoided, except, perhaps, while the 



HEADING -IN 



159 



tree is very young. Although the writer's per- 
sonal opinions upon this subject may be of no 
value to the public, they 
may nevertheless be ex- 
pounded by a concrete ex- 
ample. 

A Kieffer pear tree is 
shown in diagram in Fig. 
116. It is two years set. 
When planted, it was a mere 
whip. The first season it 
sent out four very strong 
lateral branches, as shown 
in the picture. At the end 
of that season the growths 
were cut back half their 
length. The second sea- 
son, two to four shoots 
started from near the top 
of each shortened branch. 
If a similar treatment be 
given at the end of the 
second year, still other lat- 
eral growths will arise the 
following year, and the tree 
will have far too many 
branches. Three things can 
now be done. The existing branches may be 
headed -in as represented by the two long lines ; 
some of the branches may be cut away bodily, 




Diagram to repre- 
sent cutting-back of 
young tree. 



160 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

as shown by the several short bars; the treat- 
ment may be a combination of these two. One 
thing is clear: the tree now has too many branches 
for its size, and some of them (say half of the 
secondary ones) should be cut away. Whether 
any further heading -in shall be done, is a local 
question. If the tree is making a growth of 
three feet or more, heading- in would probably be 
advisable. This heading -in tends to make the 
branches thick and stocky, thereby enabling them 
to support the forthcoming crops of fruit. As 
the tree approaches maturity, heading- in may be 
less frequent and less severe, and it may even- 
tually cease. 

To every one who contemplates the cutting -back 
of trees, it should be said that heading -in neces- 
sitates more pruning in the interior of the top 
This is particularly true of early summer prun 
ing, which often causes new lateral growths to 
become so numerous as to be very troublesome 
(as, for example, in summer pruning of grapes). 

The writer, then, believes in heading- in vig- 
orous young fruit trees of very strong -growing 
varieties, for the purpose of inducing a stockier 
growth of the branches and of promoting the 
early branching of the main or scaffold limbs. 
As the tree increases in age, the heading -in 
should be less and less, and should generallj^ 
cease when full bearing arrives. If the mature 
tree grows too rapidly, the fundamental correc- 



OBSTRUCTING THE SAP 161 

tive is to withhold tillage or manure. Another 
motive for heading- in is merely to keep the tree 
in shape, or to trim into some desired form. This 
is a matter of a personal ideal, and, although the 
writer^ s ideal is counter to this, there is no arbi- 
trary standard by which the one ideal or the other 
is to be judged. The writer believes that an open- 
centered and free -growing fruit-tree is generally 
preferable to a compact -headed and sheared -in 
tree, but most excellent commercial results, par- 
ticularly in stone-fruits, are often secured under 
the latter method of tree- growing. The orchardist 
should determine his own purpose when he begins 
to prune his trees, and then carry out his plan 
systematically and logically to the end. Aside 
from these purposes, there remain the necessary 
heading- in of dwarfs (Chap. V.) and the heading- in 
for production of fruit -buds (Section 15). 

10. An obstruction just above a hud or limb 
tends to produce strong longitudinal growth 
in that part ; an obstruction below it tends 
to produce a thickening of the part and a 
quiescent state. 

The obstruction below the bud tends to cut off 
the supply of water, upon which rapid growth 
largely depends ; but the deposition of elaborated 
materials from the leaves builds up tissue. 
Since rapid wood growth is hindered because of 
the obstruction to the upward -moving sap, the 



162 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

parts tend to thicken rathei: than to elongate. We 
are already prepared for these assertions from 
the study of girdling (Figs. 95, 96, 97, 107). 

A complete obstruction amounts to a severing 
of the shoot or heading- in ; and we have already 
found (Section 9) that heading -in tends to de- 
velop strong growths from the lateral buds. The 
common methods of obstructing the movements 
of sap are by girdling or ringing, notching, and 
bending or twisting the shoot. Girdling by the re- 
moval of bark, however, is such a complete ob- 
struction as to starve the part below the girdle, 
and the statements which may be made concern- 
ing its effects do not always apply to notching and 
bending the shoot. (See discussion in Chap. V.) 

It should be remembered that the upward move- 
ment of sap takes place in the young or sap- 
wood, and a notch only through the bark does 
not directly affect this movement. The downward 
movement takes place in the inner bark, or bast, 
and a notch only through the bark is, therefore, 
able to check it. A notch through both the bark 
and sapwood cuts off both movements and is equiv- 
alent, in this respect, to cutting off the shoot. 

11. Checking groivth, so long as the plant re- 
mains strong and healthy^ induces fruitf ill- 
ness. 

Very strong growth is usually at the expense of 
fruit -bearing. Tilling and manuring may be 



FRUIT -BEARING IS A HABIT 163 

carried so far as to make the plant over -vigorous 
and under -fruitful. Heavy pruning may do the 
same. Other conditions aside, deep notching of 
the twig above a bud, tends to make the bud pro- 
duce a long, woody shoot; notching below the 
bud tends to make it develop a fruit -spur (see 
Section 13). Heading -in tends to start woody 
shoots from the buds near the cut. Girdling 
just through the bark (or ringing) tends to de- 
velop fruit-buds above the wound. If, however, 
the girdle is below the foliage (that is, on the 
stem or trunk), new shoots which may arise below 
the wound must grow at the expense of material 
stored in the part below the wound ; and if such 
stored nutriment is small, shoots may not be able 
to start. Girdling by cutting through the young 
wood tends to develop strong growth below the 
girdle and to starve and kill all the parts above it. 
In a word, a strong supply of root -sap tends to 
stimulate wood growth ; a pronounced deposition 
of elaborated food tends to develop fruit -buds. 

12. Fruit -hearing is determined more hy the 
habitual performance and condition of the 
plant than hy the Mnd or extent of pruning; 
it is associated with a quiescent rather than 
with a stimulated or fitful state ; and the 
hahit is more amenahle to treatment when 
the plant is young than when it is old. 

Plants vary greatly in fruit -bearing. Some of 



164 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

this variation is a matter of individuality. No 
two trees are alike in this respect any more than 
they are in form of top or length of life. 
Some of the variation, however, is due to soil or 
other environment. It is natural, however, for 
plants to bear, and when they once come into 
bearing they should be maintained in that habit 
by continuous good care. With such plants, any 
treatment which greatly disturbs their equilibrium 
tends to break or upset the bearing habit. If, 
however, through neglect or poor management, 
plants have never acquired a bearing habit, the 
grower may experiment, hoping to find something 
which will bring them into fruit. One type of 
experiment is to change the management of the 
land ; another is to modify the plant -food ; an- 
other is to change the method of pruning; another 
is to give treatment for insects and diseases. 

The principle under discussion is the most im- 
portant one enunciated in this book, from the 
fact that it advises the fruit-grower to depend 
more on good, thoughtful and consecutive man- 
agement of his plants year by year than upon any 
disconnected, spasmodic or unusual treatments 
now and then. A good plan moderately worked 
out is better than a hundred experiments. 

Let us apply these reflections to the treatment 
of a neglected and unfruitful apple orchard. 
The general advice is to till, fertilize, prune and 
spray ; and this advice is good. The pruning, 



OVER -BEARING 165 

however, has more effect in bringing the trees 
into shape and in correcting the neglect of pre- 
ceding years than in directly inducing fruit -bear- 
ing. A heavy pruning adds vigor and produces 
new wood (Sections 1, 3). The orchard is reno- 
vated and rejuvenated, and the grower may then 
begin and carry forward a consecutive treatment, 
which he should have begun when the trees were 
planted. After two or three years, the trees begin 
to steady down, and fruit -bearing should then 
begin; but fruit -bearing cannot be maintained if 
the orchard is allowed to lapse into its former 
condition. 

We are now able to see that the common habit 
of pruning the orchard heroically every two or 
three years is one of the very best means of 
keeping the trees unbalanced and upset, and of in- 
ducing wood growth, and thereby preventing fruit- 
bearing. All efforts to make plants bear annually 
must fail unless consecutive good care is given 
year by year. Light pruning every year is more 
useful than the same aggregate amount of pruning 
given only in occasional or even in alternate years. 

Over -bearing is itself a disturbance of equilib- 
rium, and is almost necessarily followed by a reac- 
tion of under -bearing. This corollary has such im- 
portant bearing on practice that it should receive 
careful attention. One extreme follows another, 
and the oftener these extremes occur the greater is 
the likelihood that they will become an unremedi- 



166 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

able or fixed habit of the plant. It is interesting 
to note that the habit of alternate bearing is most 
pronounced in plants of long life, suggesting that 
the habit is largely, if not wholly, the result of 
the frequent occurrence of over -bearing while the 
plant was young. Apples and pears are par- 
ticularly given to alternate bearing, plums and 
peaches less so, bush -fruits still less, and strawber- 
ries not at all. It is a question, therefore, if any 
treatment can set some old orchards into annual 
bearing. The habit of alternate cropping may 
have become too fixed to be changed; and, at all 
events, pruning is only one of the means of over- 
coming and correcting the habit (see Section 14). 
Although it is a cardinal principle in horticul- 
ture that checking growth induces fruitfulness, it 
is only a means of inducing a bearing habit; and 
when this habit has once been secured, everj^ 
effort should be exerted to maintain it. It does 
not follow, however, that trees of slow growth are 
necessarily most fruitful. The most fruitful apple 
tree I know is one which has made a very heavy 
growth from the beginning ; but the bearing 
habit was early induced by good tillage and good 
feeding, and the extra growth enables it to bear 
the more fruit. This bearing habit, as I have 
said (page 163), is sometimes a matter of individ- 
uality in the plant, sometimes a question of va- 
riety, and oftener a question of good and rational 
care begun when the plant is young. 



SPECIAL PRACTICES 167 

13. All means of ohstriictmg the movement of 
sap — as notching, shredding, lending, twist- 
ing, girdling — are matters of special and 
local application, and are to he associated 
more with modes of training than with prun- 
ing proper. 
This principle is the complemeut of Section 12. 
If the habitual performance of the plant— in- 
duced by consecutive rational treatment — deter- 
mines its usefulness, then the treatment of indi- 
vidual buds and spurs must be merely incidental 
and special matters. The fact is, that all the 
advice in respect to notching, bending, and the 
like, is born of the amateur and garden -culture 
fruit-growing of the Old World. Whether the 
authors were conscious of the fact or not, our 
older American pomological writings are direct 
offshoots of European small -area practices. The 
emphasis is placed first on varieties, and always 
on facts rather than on principles. In vegetable 
gardening literature the same has been emphati- 
cally true, and it was not until Henderson wrote 
his "Gardening for Profit" that the large -area and 
commercial American gardening found its tongue ; 
but even Henderson followed the detached and 
cyclopedic method of arrangement, which is born 
of a desire for facts and ready -reference rather 
than for great truths and principles. But the 
transcendent merit of Henderson's book — which 
marks an epoch in American horticultural litera- 



168 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

ture — is the fact that it caught the rising com- 
mercial spirit of the time and threw off the bonds 
of the amateur. 

These remarks will, I hope, put the reader in 
the right attitude towards all these petty matters 
of pruning, as it will towards the common fault 
of putting emphasis first on varieties and other 
isolated, local and personal facts. If a person must 
train his pear tree or peach tree to a wall or a 
trellis, then he must perforce count his buds, 
force spurs to arise at stated intervals, and be 
familiar with the refinements of pinching, ring- 
ing and notching Grape training is much con- 
fused because people do not distinguish that it 
involves two sets of ideas, — the pruning to remove 
superfluous wood, and the training into some set 
form. The number of buds to leave on the cane 
depends more on the system of training than on 
the principles of pruning. 

We have already enunciated a principle which 
underlies the results of the notching and bend- 
ing of shoots (Section 10). Full directions for 
performing these operations may be found in 
European writings. It may only be said here that 
these practices are not generally productive of 
predictable results in fruit -bearing; but the ob- 
struction to the movement of elaborated sap 
tends to develop fruit, whereas the obstruction 
to the movement of crude or root -sap tends to 
develop wood. 



EFFECTS OF NOTCHING 169 

Notching into the wood above a bud tends to 
produce strong growth from that bud. Notch- 
ing just through the bark above a bud, tends to 
weaken the bud, because the root -sap is not 
stopped and the elaborated sap is stopped. 
Notching into the wood below a bud tends to 
pile up reserve materials at the bud and thereby 
to induce fruit -bearing. Notching just through 
the bark below a bud tends to pile up tissue at 
the bud, but since the root -sap is not cut off, the 
bud may use this tissue in rapid growth, and 
fruit- bearing, therefore, may not be induced. (See 
remarks on page 162.) 

Girdling or ringing (practice discussed in Chap- 
ter V.) tends to develop fruit -buds above the 
girdle. Bending the shoot to a horizontal or 
deflexed position tends to lessen growth, per- 
haps because of its position, but chiefly because 
of the kinking or modification of the tissues 
at the bend. 

The following extracts from recent studies by 
Koopmann* give a clear conception of the effects 
of notching: 

"Notches are made on twigs of one year's growth or more, 
to influence a particular bud in various ways, or they are 



*Karl Koopmann, " Elementarlehren aus dem Gebiete des Baumschnitts" 
in Landwirtschaftliche Jahrbiieher, xxv. (1896), heft 4 u. 5. Koopmann's 
studies in pruning have been commended by state and society medals. 
This memoir gives copious references to the German literature of prun- 
ing. A most significant conclusion of this extensive study of special 
methods of pruning-treatments is the following sentence (which the 



170 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

made below or above a twig in order to influence the de- 
velopment of this twig, or of a larger part of a tree. 

"Notches in the bark under a bud are equivalent to one- 
third or one-fourth girdle, and can be made as girdles 
are. The effect of the operation in causing the production 
of fruit is confined, in this case, to a single bud ; at l6ast a 
more extended influence on the parts above it is hard to 
observe, and probably does not exist, as the hindrance to 
sap movement is very small, and the root is not essentially 
drawn into participation. If, however, many such notches 
or partial girdles are made on a twig and following each 
other closely, as perhaps in the case of following the spiral 
of the bud positions, the effect must be more and more 
nearly that of a complete girdle. 

"A notch above a bud into the sap-carrying wood has a 
contrary effect, as of a one-third or one-fourth cutting-back, 
which really is done. If the twig were cut off at the same 
point, a large number of rapidly-growing woody shoots 
would be expected, particularly if the cutting-back were 
done in older wood. The deeper into the sap -carrying 
tissues the knife advances, the more pronounced must be 
the result. The crude sap taken up by the root and not 
directly of use in building tissue, can only do the work of 
fitting for use the stored reserve materials. For these 
reserve materials, thus set into solution, there is no other 
outlet than that they be worked up and used in a leaf- 
bud that had remained dormant or in a newly forming 
adventitious bud below the notch. However, as soon as 



student should consider in connection with our Section 12) : " Je weniger 
wir zu schneiden haben am Baum, desto gesunder bleibt er und desto 
schoner entwickeln sich die Friichte" (The less we are obliged to cut a 
tree, the sounder it remains and the finer its fruits develop). This 
sentence must not be taken to mean that Koopmann would discourage 
pruning, but that it is the part of wisdom to resort to pruning as little as 
possible, and yet obtain the desired results. 

The student will find an excellent account of special treatments of pear 
shoots and spurs in Opoix's "La Culture du Poirier," Paris, 1896. 



EFFECTS OF NOTCHING 171 

growth has taken place, the organ, whether originally weak 
or strong of constitution, is stimulated to the greatest 
activity through the energetic upward -pushing root -sap, 
and the result of this is, by fall, a wood branch of luxu- 
rious development. 

" A pronounced notch in very old wood calls forth either 
a very rank twig or is without effect. In these cases, it is 
evidently caused by the absence of a bud or a location for 
one. If untoward conditions of nutrition are present, it 
may possibly be due to a defective storage of the necessary 
reserve materials. This latter supposition it might be diffi- 
cult to prove. 

" The freezing of buds can call forth similar results on the 
youngest wood, as those just described' for old wood on 
which there are, in general, no buds able to grow. On 
many plants the buds suffer sooner than the cambium layer 
of the wood. This is less noticeable on orchard wood than 
on many natural woods; on the latter, in spite of the 
strongest flow of sap, the sprouts will be missed under 
such circumstances. 

" The notchings spoken of in the foregoing paragraphs have 
great importance to the fruit-grower, partly in the shaping 
of the tree and partly in the production of a balance in 
the branching (or clothing) of the scaffold limbs of dwarf 
orchard trees. But the notches above a bud into the bark, 
and under a bud into the wood, cannot attain any impor- 
tance in practice. 

"From what is known about the circulation and effect of 
the sap, it may follow with some degree of clearness that 
a notch above a bud, which removes but the bark and bast 
layers, must tend to enfeeble and prevent sprouting, be- 
cause the upward-moving sap is not stopped at the bud, and 
the products of assimilation, which are a surplus from the 
leaves, are withheld from the bud as long as the wound is 
open. Many practical experiments with this notch gave, 
however, chiefly two results. In most cases no marked 



172 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

change could be determined on the bud. It remained dor- 
mant, and thereby passed naturally to its destruction, 
whether more rapidly than other buds not artificially in- 
fluenced, we have so far not been able to determine. In 
many other cases, a sprout did develop which sometimes 
grew into a long shoot. This appearance made the matter 
very unclear, until it was noticed that in such cases the cuts 
had not been made with the care which they require. The 
bark and bast layers had been removed, but at the same 
time the younger layers of wood had been injured, as ap- 
peared very prominently in longitudinal sections. 

"There yet remains the notching into the wood below a 
bud, and this, again, must be looked upon as a partial cut- 
ting-back. Through such a notch the bud is cut off from 
the root, and the cambium fluids are piled up at the bud, 
which is, therefore, too abundantly supplied with reserve 
materials without being itself caused to grow. The result 
is similar to the notching into the bai'k, only the wound is 
larger, and therefore takes a longer time to heal. The 
deeper the sap-carrying wood-layers are cut, the less is the 
tendency of the bud to develop a shoot, and it usually re- 
mains as a well-developed fruit-bud without any clearly 
observable lengthening of the axis, as though sleeping; or 
it develops a leaf rosette, in order to bear fruit the next 
year. A notch in younger wood, so executed between two 
buds that both are equally influenced, results always in a 
woody shoot from the lower one and a fruit -bud, or a very 
small fruit- spur terminated by a fruit-bud, from the upper 
one; the woody shoot is self-active, the fruit-bud seem- 
ingly a parasitic creation. As the notch into the bark under 
the buds, with reference to the production of fruit-spurs, 
has generally the same effect as a notch into the wood, the 
latter is superfluous. A slight damage to the outer wood 
(splintschicht), however, does not in any way lessen the 
expected result. 

"While in the foregoing we have kept in view the effect of 



EFFECTS OF NOTCHING 173 

notches on single buds, an exhaustive treatment of the sub- 
ject requires a short notice of the influence which similar 
notches exert on already existing branches. Bark-notches 
above or below a branch bearing spurs act in a very slight 
degree on the branch in question ; a complete girdle around 
the base of the branch acts, of course, as an ordinary 
girdle. A quarter girdle on the under side causes the same 
effect, but in a small degree, for the stopping of the cam- 
bium fluids is almost completely obviated by the possibility 
of their moving off to one side. An upper cut out of the 
bark can also have but the same small influence on the 
spurs of the branch under experiment, as the cut attains the 
importance of a quarter girdle to the spurs while the branch 
itself can in no way be influenced by this bark -notching, 
because the downward -flowing cambium fluid from the 
spurs can, of course, be held back, but cannot exert an in- 
fluence on the branching below the girdle. In practice, 
therefore, such bark injuries have no importance whatever. 

" It is otherwise with vigorous notches in the wood below 
or above a branch. By means of these notches the root -sap 
is either cut off or led to these branches. The more vig- 
orous the notching on a spur above one of its branches, 
the more the latter receive of the crude sap, and the leaves 
are the more stimulated to activity; the leaves become 
larger, the internodes of greater length, the number of shoots 
and leaves is increased, and an increased production of 
wood is the result. Directly opposite is the effect of a notch 
under a branch or twig. A large portion of the supply 
destined for the assimilating organs is cut off from the 
branch, and the diminished production of wood is a natural 
consequence. The sap hindered in its course is carried to 
other branches in increased quantities, and particularly to 
one which may be notched above and therefore already 
favored, if such should happen to be in the immediate 
neighborhood of the first. 

" With reference to the technical execution of the notches, 



174 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

it may be said that they are made in the bark with a knife 
in simple notch form, or like a half -moon. As to the notch 
in the wood, the simple notch is used, also a gable-like 
cut. The latter seems to have a slightly increased effect. 
In place of the notches, in wood of a greater age than six 
years, carefully made simple saw cuts, perpendicular to 
the axis of the spur, or roof-like in form above or below 
the organs to be influenced — aggregations of buds, twigs or 
branches — are more desirable, as notches generally cause 
too large wounds if they are to enter the wood to a sufficient 
depth. A saw cut made at the proper time in the early 
spring heals outwardly in from six to eight weeks, although 
it causes in the wood a not insignificant wound, and can 
cause necrotic appearances on sickly trees. As, however, 
the never -healing wood wounds are protected from injurious 
influences from without by walling over, permanent ill 
results need not be feared. Weak or sickly trees and stone 
fruits should be spared from such treatment as much as 
possible, as every disease -producing organism is given a 
new ground to occupy by such saw cuts." 

14. Pruning may he made a means of tJiinning 
the fruit ; and thereby it may indirectly 
contribute to the control of the bearing 
year of the plants. 

Fruit is thinned both by picking it off and by 
removing the buds which are to bear it. The 
removing of the buds may be accomplished ex- 
peditiously by pruning. This pruning may be 
the heading-back of shoots upon which fruit-buds 
are borne or the removal of fruit -spurs. The 
operator must first know the mode in which the 
plant bears its flower-buds. Heading-back of the 



EFFECT OF THINNING THE FRUIT 175 

annual growth thins peaches, quinces, raspber- 
ries, blackberries, black currants, and, to a less 
extent, red and white currants, and grapes, — all 
those plants which develop blossom -buds on the 
wood of the last season, or which have a co- 
terminal habit (page 59) of fruit -bearing. The 
great disadvantage of thinning fruit by means 
of pruning is the impossibility of knowing how 
many buds or young fruits may subsequently be 
destroyed by cold, insects or diseases. Yet the 
practice should be more generally in vogue, for 
in most cases of too heavy prospective fruit- 
bearing the danger can be partially averted by 
a cheaper means than hand-picking the young 
fruits. With tender fruits and in cold climates, 
this thinning by pruning should be delayed until 
danger of winter- injury is thought to be past. 

The second part of the proposition is very im- 
portant, — the fact that the energies of the tree 
can be conserved by thinning the fruit. This is 
really a corollary of Section 12. It is necessary 
to discover just how this conservation comes 
about. We have observed (see Figs. 13, 14, 15) 
that there is an alternation in fruit- bearing on 
the individual spur because the demands made 
by the fruit are so great that a fruit -bud cannot 
develop the same year. In the year of fruit- 
bearing, therefore, a small leaf -bud develops to 
continue the spur the following year ; and in this 
following and barren year, a fruit -bud is devel- 



176 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

oped for bearing the succeeding year. Alternate- 
years' fruit -bearing, therefore, is largely a ques- 
tion of food supply. If, then, we are to make 
the tree bear every year, we must supply more 
food materials to the tree (a subject which is 
not germane to this treatise) or remove part 
of the fruit. Removing the fruit affects chiefly 
the spur on which it is borne ; in large fruits, 
as a rule, one spur, or one branch of a spur, 
matures one fruit : therefore, it must follow that 
if thinning the fruit induces annual bearing in 
some spur -fruits, it must be because one spur is 
made to bear one year and another spur to bear 
another year. That is, there is an alternation in 
fruit -bearing on the spur, the same as before, 
but the bearing year of part of the spurs is 
changed by means of the thinning. It would 
seem, therefore, that the thinning will have most 
effect in inducing annual bearing when it removes 
all the fruits from certain spurs, thereby allowing 
these spurs to bear in the alternate j^ears. But it 
is probable that no amount of thinning can pro- 
duce an annual -bearing habit unless the plants 
receive other necessary consecutive good care. 
It is a question if it would not be advisable to 
change the bearing year of entire plants, thereby 
allowing part of the trees in an orchard to bear 
one year and the others to bear the following 
year. 

It is a fact that the bearing year of fruit trees 



CHANGING THE BEARING YEAR 177 

can often be changed by removing the crop very 
early in the season; bnt it is also true that the 
trees tend to revert to their accustomed habit, 
and it is probable that this reversion is the more 
rapid and the more complete the older the tree 
(page 166) and the more indifferent the general 
treatment of it. In fruits which are most syste- 
matically thinned (either by picking the fruit or 
by means of the accustomed methods of pruning) , 
annual bearing is the most pronounced. The 
grape and peach are examples. Of trees which 
are not habitually thinned, it seems as if annual 
bearing is a quality of short-lived species more 
than of long-lived species, as suggested on page 
166. In the short-lived species, as the bush- 
fruits, there is not sufficient time, perhaps, to 
allow such habits to become thoroughly fixed. 

Bearing in mind the alternation in fruit- bear- 
ing in the spurs in Figs. 13 and 14, let us con- 
sider what might happen if the fruit were re- 
moved when very small. Fig. 117 tells the story. 
In this case, the very young fruit was removed, 
and two blossom -buds have developed the same 
season. In this spur the bearing year is changed. 
We also found that the bearing year was once 
changed in the pear spur shown in Fig. 19. I 
must hasten to say, however, that this change 
in the bearing year does not always follow the 
removal of the flowers or young fruits, for very 
much depends on the habit of the tree-, as well as 



178 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

on its general thrift and vigor; but it is safe to 
say that removing the flowers or very young fruits 
from a spur or branch tends to cause that part 
to bear the following year. 

The fact that work is expended in the bearing 
of fruit may be understood if one examines the 
swellings on the spurs or fruit- bearing twigs of 
pears. In Fig. 118, these swellings 
are seen at a a. The scars at the 
ends show that fruit was borne 
there. In the transfer of food to 
this point and the arrest of longi- 
tudinal growth, a building up of 
mechanical tissue has taken place ; 
and it is probable that the long 
growth of the lateral branches 
buds resulting (wMch, in this casc, bear only leaf- 
from the re- ]3^^^s) ^as been made possible by the 

moval of fi'uit. „ , . , rpi, ^ 

Natural size, ^^^ess of nutriment. The reader 
must not confound these swellings 
with the thickening due to mere arrest of longi- 
tudinal growth, as shown in 3, Fig. 61 (which is 
also mentioned in Section 15). 

Chemical tests show that these swellings (like 
Fig. 118) are not storage reservoirs of plant -food. 
My colleague, Mr. A. L. Knisely, has made ex- 
aminations of these swellings for me, and found 
that the starch -like contents of the swellings were 
less than that of vigorous and normal shoots of 
the same age. In normal twigs, the moisture was 




HEADING -IN TO PRODUCE FRUIT 



179 



found to be 50.94 per cent ; in swellings, it was 
59.20 per cent. In both samples, the contents (as 
starch, dextrine, pentosans, and the like) were 
calculated as reducing sugar. In normal winter 
twigs, the reducing sugar was 
28 per cent; in the swellings, 
at the same date, it was 27.1 
per cent. Calculated to fresh 
substance, the percentages were 





118. 



Swellings on pear, resulting from fruit-bearing. 
Half size. 



13.74 for the twigs and 11.06 for the swellings. 
These tests still further show that these swellings 
are mechanical tissue, resulting from the strain 
of fruit -bearing, and that they are not to be 



180 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

looked upon as conducing in any way to sub- 
sequent fruitfulness of the plant. 

15. Reading -in induces fruitfulness by check - 
ing exuberant growth and by encouraging 
the formation of short lateral growths. 

In Section 9 we have discussed effects of head- 
ing -in on the growth of wood and the form of 
the top of the plant. We are now enquiring 
what effect it has in inducing fruit-bearing. So 
far as heading -in tends to check woody growth, 
it conduces to the formation of fruit -buds ; but 
very heavy heading-back amounts to a heavy 
pruning and it may, therefore, conduce to the 
very opposite of fruit production. Therefore, 
there can be no specific statements as to how 
much or how frequent heading -in shall be to in- 
duce productiveness. Everything depends on the 
vigor and age of tree, extent of cutting, and 
other local conditions. In fruit-trees which are 
making a normal growth (say 12 to 20 inches) 
at bearing age, cutting off a third or fourth of 
the annual growth may be advisable ; but it must 
be considered that this cutting -back may have 
other objects than the inducing of fruit -bearing, 
such as thinning the fruit, keeping the tree in 
shape, preventing dwarf trees from outgrowing 
their stocks, and keeping the stature small in 
crowded plantings. Heading -in to induce fruit- 
fulness must not be confounded with the head- 



SEASON FOR PRUNING 181 

ing-in of young trees to check too long and 
slender branches. It is doubtful if an occasional 
heading -in has much effect in developing fruit - 
bearing. It should no doubt be an accustomed 
practice, if employed at all for this purpose. 

There is no question that heading -in the ter- 
minal growths tends to develop short spur- 
like branches in the interior of the top; and the 
tendency of such branches is to develop fruit - 
buds. However, it is a question if this result 
is not an advantage to training rather than to 
the ultimate productiveness of the tree. That 
is, it concentrates the fruit in a smaller space; 
but if the top is allowed to take its natural 
course, it will probably develop as great pro- 
lificacy as if it is headed- in. It is often a dis- 
tinct advantage of heading-in that it tends to 
develop fruit -bearing early in the lifetime of the 
plant. As a matter of practice, the writer believes 
that the value of heading-in as a means of induc- 
ing fruit-bearing has been overestimated. 

16. The season in which priming is done has 
some influence on fruit -leaving, for winter 
pruning tends to produce wood, whereas 
summer pruning does not. 

Plants which are cut in midsummer, or later 
in the growing season, seem to have the power 
to adjust themselves to the new conditions dur- 
ing the same season (page 156). That is, the 



182 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

effect of the pruning is very largely taken up 
before the return of spring, which is the season 
of growth. Plants which are pruned in winter, 
or any time during the dormant period, expend 
their redundant energy at once in growth, upon 
the return of the growing season. Aside from 
all this, the removal of leaves during the sum- 
mer reduces the working or elaborating surface, 
and thereby tends more in the direction of 
starving or weakening the plant than in feed- 
ing or strengthening it. It is well known, for 
example, that watersprouts are less frequent 
following summer pruning than following win- 
ter pruning. These remarks are necessarily very 
general, and the condition of the plant and 
amount of cutting may be expected to obscure 
results which might be expected to transpire in 
typical or selected cases. If the pruning is 
such as to check wood growth without percep- 
tibly weakening the plant, fruit -bearing is gen- 
erally promoted ; and herein lies the value of 
summer pinching of strong or leading shoots. 
In respect to the proper time for pinching, 
Sorauer remarks : * " The greatest success will 
attend the process if the pinching takes place 
just at the period when the buds have still 
sufficient time to swell up and become stored 
with food material, but when the supply of 
water begins to diminish, so that the upper 

*«Physiology of Plants," 138. 



WHEN DO FRUIT -BUDS FORM? 183 

buds do not grow out into long laterals. * * * 
To prevent disappointments, we state emphat- 
ically, — as the practice is very common, — that 
no fixed rule can be laid down for the com- 
mencement of summer pruning. Trees may even 
be pinched to death. The favorable time for 
this operation depends on the climate, the soil, 
the variety and even upon the individual char- 
acteristics of the plant." 

The reader should know that the effect of 
this pinching depends very much on the gen- 
eral habit and vigor of the plant, and that it 
is very difficult to predict results unless the 
particular plant has been under training for 
some time (and preferably from the time it was 
planted) . The best results in pinching the tips 
of shoots are obtained when plants are trained 
to definite forms, as on walls, cordons, in glass 
houses, or in arbitrary pyramids or other geo- 
* metrical figures. The practice is, therefore, of 
little use in the commercial fruit-growing of 
this country. 

The operator must not expect fruit -buds to 
form in the same year in which pinching or 
heading -back is done, although such immediate 
results are sometimes obtained. If heading -in 
is done before active growth has ceased, mis- 
chievous lateral growths may be expected (Sec- 
tion 9) ; if done after the leaves have ceased 
to be active, little if any results may be antici- 



184 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

pated. Theoretically, the proper time is just as 
growth begins to cease, which, in the North, is 
in early summer The shoot in Fig. 12 (Stark 
apple) was cut back in winter, and the follow- 
ing season the fruit -bud a was formed. This 
was a comparatively weak shoot on the lower 
part of the tree. Had it been a strong termi- 
nal twig, the bud a would probably have pro- 
duced a long shoot. The injury to the shoot 3 
in Fig. 61 (at e) occurred about midsummer. 
The two lateral buds received an extra food 
supply and gave rise to late -season branchlets. 
The parts became greatly thickened, but only 
leaf -buds formed. It is probably correct to say 
that heading -in and pinching exert more marked 
effects, in inducing fruit -bearing, in subsequent 
years and in proportion to the persistency with 
which they are practiced, than in the very year 
of the operation. 

Before we can suggest perfectly rational treat- 
ment to produce fruit -buds, we must know at 
what period in the formation of the winter 
bud the differentiation between the leaf -bud 
and the blossom- bud takes place. This question 
cannot be answered with our present knowledge. 
In its very earliest stages, it is probable that 
the winter bud is undifferentiated ; but its 
character is probably determined before it be- 
comes conspicuous on the branch. At all events, 
it seems to be settled, as a matter of practice, 



PRUNING ON THE PLAINS 185 

that any treatment designed to produce blossom- 
buds must be made before midsummer if it is 
to have effect in that year. In general, how- 
ever, as has been said, the effect of treatment 
is to be expected in the year or years follow- 
ing the treatment, rather than in the very year 
in which it is applied. 

17. The effect of pruning, as well as the neces- 
sity of it, depends greatly upon locality 
and climate. 

Not only does the vigor of plants differ widely 
in different places, but there are local dangers to 
be avoided. In the coldest parts of the country, 
winter -made wounds are the means of depriving 
the tree of much of its moisture (page 143) ; in 
such regions, plants need the protection of a 
continuous cover of bark. In the hot and dry 
interior regions, sun- scalding often follows very 
heavy pruning, and there has thus arisen a feeling 
that trees should not be pruned on the Plains. 
It is undoubtedly true that in those regions out- 
door plants need less pruning than in humid cli- 
mates, but trees which need to be so heavily 
pruned that they are injured by sun-scald are 
usually those which have been neglected in the 
beginning. On this subject Card writes* as fol- 
lows : 

" Shall we prune fruit trees in the West ? To the east- 
*Fred W. Card, "Notes on Pruning", Bull. 50, Nebr. Exp. Sta. 1897. 



186 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

em man this will appear like a foolish question, and he 
will at once say, Why, yes, of course ; prune fruit trees 
everywhere. To the western man it will not appear so 
foolish ; indeed, many men upon the Plains would say 
No! in answer to this question. Where is the trouble? 
Plainly a difference in conditions. The eastern fruit-grower 
has learned by experience that pruning is an essential part 
of his method of treatment. The western grower, on the 
other hand, has not only found that he can produce good 
fruit without pruning, but has sometimes found injurious 
results from it. He may, therefore, if his experience is 
somewhat limited, jump at the conclusion that all prun- 
ing is to be avoided. Some of the reasons for pruning 
which apply in the moister climate of the eastern states 
lose their force wholly, or in part, upon the Plains. The 
eastern grower finds it necessary to thin his trees and 
admit light and air to produce fruit of high color and 
good flavor. The western man, on the other hand, finds 
that, under his conditions of intense sunlight and low 
humidity, fruit will develop color well regardless of such 
precautions. The eastern grower, if he neglects this, 
may find his fruit suffering from attacks of fungous dis- 
eases; but in general, fungi are less troublesome in the 
dryer climate of the Plains, so this reason likewise loses 
its force. 

"Yet there are reasons for pruning which are worthy 
of consideration, even in Nebraska. It is frequently essen- 
tial to correct bad habits of growth in young trees, and 
this occurs as often in one climate as in another. Then, 
too, a tree which has come to maturity may attempt to 
do more than it can perform, so that it becomes neces- 
sary to thin the fruit. This, in part, can be done by 
pruning. In the case of small fruits and grapes it is 
wholly so done, though with trees additional measures are 
often needed. Still another reason would make itself evi- 
dent to any one who would pick fruit for a short time in 



PRUNING IN WASHINGTON 187 

some of the trees which may be seen in Nebraska. Pick- 
ing fruit is not an easy task under the best of conditions, 
and when the tree is so full of limbs and suckers that it 
becomes almost inaccessible, the work is doubly aggravat- 
ing. Pruning is needed in Nebraska as well as in New 
York, but the methods employed, or at least the measure 
of wood which is cut away, will need to be varied. In 
general, it should be much less severe in the western 
states than in the Atlantic states. The main thing needed 
is to watch the habit of growth of the young trees, to 
prevent the formation of undesirable and crowding limbs, 
and to remove occasional suckers and water-shoots which 
may spring out from the trunk and base of the branches 
as the tree gets older. 

"The top of the tree needs to be kept more dense than 
in moister climates. The fruit itself is much less likely 
to suffer from shade than from exposure to wind and sun. 
In the eastern states it is necessary to keep the lower 
limbs well up from the ground, or the fruit produced upon 
them will be lacking in color and flavor. In the West 
this is an unnecessary precaution, and low-headed trees 
are much in favor because they are believed to suffer less 
from the wind and to protect the bodies of the trees 
from sun -scald." 

The different ideas to be followed in two parts 
of one state are set forth by Balmer:* 

"Climatic conditions will largely determine what prac- 
tice we shall adopt in pruning our fruit trees. In a state 
like Washington, where such dissimilar climatic conditions 
exist as between the regions west of the Cascades and 
the regions east of the Cascades, no practice can be laid 
down that will be applicable to both sides of the range. 
What would be a perfectly proper practice west of the 

*J. A. Balmeri "Pruning Orchard Trees," Bull. 25,Wasli. Exp. Sta., 1896. 



188 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

Cascades, where the sun is obscured a large part of the 
year, and where the moisture conditions are conducive to 
a large wood growth, would be almost suicidal on the east 
side of the range, and vice versa. Therefore it will be 
necessary to adopt a different practice for each side. 

"Let us first observe the conditions prevailing in Eastern 
Washington. Here we have a long, dry summer, with a 
fierce, scorching sun and strong, drying winds, with a 
maximum rainfall of probably less than eighteen inches 
per annum, followed by a severe winter with fluctuating 
temperature and sudden changes. In portions of the fruit 
belt there is barely enough natural moisture in the ground 
to sustain a tree. Under these conditions who can wonder 
that trees on the east side come to maturity at an early 
age, and produce fruit at a time in their lives when they 
ought to be making wood growth and establishing a 
strong, healthy frame for future usefulness. And yet con- 
ditions which at first sight would seem totally unfitted for 
the production of healthy trees and fine fruit are, with 
the aid of intelligent cultivation and judicious use of 
water, made to produce abundantly of the choicest fruits 
of the earth. 

"There is no question in my mind as to what is the 
proper method to adopt in pruning our fruit trees on the 
east side of the mountains. We must prune in winter, and 
prune hard. The tendency of all our young trees is to 
run to premature fruiting, cherries carrying a crop of 
fruit at two years old, and pears and apples bearing full 
crops at five and six years old. To overcome this ten- 
dency in our trees we must practice a system of pruning 
that is conducive to wood and leaf growth, and to dis- 
courage all forms of summer pruning and pinching. The 
practice of allowing nature to have her sway in our 
orchards has been tried and found wanting. A tree left 
to nature's way will soon become a brushpile in the air. 

"The above practice is recommended for all regions east 



HEALING OF LARGE WOUNDS 189 

of the Cascades. Trees on the west of the mountains 
should be treated a little differently. In most sections on 
the west side, and especially in the warmer valleys, trees 
make an extraordinary wood growth. It is no uncommon 
thing to find young prunes and cherries making a growth 
of six to ten feet in a single season. The excessive mois- 
ture in soil and atmosphere, and the mild climate, are con- 
ducive to this rapid growth. Trees grow late in the 
season, and there is some difaeulty in securing thoroughly 
ripened wood. To cut back severely in winter aggravates 
the evil, and more and longer wood is the result. The 
way to check this excessive growth is to resort to sum- 
mer pruning and pinching and even to root-prunirg, 

18. The healing of large wounds is influenced 
chiefly hy the Mnd of plant, the general 
vigor of the plant, their position on the 
plant, the length of the stump, and the 
character — as to smoothness or roughness 
— of the surface; other factors are the 
healthfulness of the wood, and the sea- 
son in which the cut is made. 

These questions have been considered in detail 
in Chapter III. Theoretically, the best time to 
make the cut, so far as healing is concerned, is 
in the early part of the growing season, for the 
healing process then begins without delay; but 
other factors exert much greater influence than 
the mere season of cutting. Wounds on pome- 
fruits (apples and pears) heal more readily than 
those on stone-fruits. Those on the common 
shade and timber trees (except pines and spruces) 
usually heal very quickly. 



190 THE PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

19. Dressings do not hasten the healing of 

wounds, hut they allow the healing to 
progress unchecked because they may pre- 
vent disease; a good dressing, therefore, 
is one which is antiseptic and durable, 
which affords mechanical protection, and 
which does not itself injure the tissues. 

The various questions involved in this state- 
ment have been somewhat fully discussed in 
Chapter III., in which it was concluded that lead 
paint is perhaps the best single dressing or pre- 
servative for wood wounds. 

20. The best pruning is that which results from 

a definite purpose or ideal, and which is 
founded on a consideration of fundamen- 
tal principles and a careful study of all 
the local conditions ; and special prun- 
ing -treatments designed to promote fruit- 
bearing are of secondary importance to 
the consecutive good care of the plant. 



Part II 

THE INCIDENTALS 



Chaptek V 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

Having now traversed the fundamental prob- 
lems involved in the pruning of plants, we may 
give attention to various details of practice. 
These details are largely personal opinions, and 
are, therefore, of restricted application; for prac- 
tice must vary with every personal ideal and every 
environmental factor. The advice in this chap- 
ter is not given with the expectation that the 
reader shall follow it literally, but it may suggest 
some of the methods which may be employed to 
secure given results. The reader is again urged 
to bear in mind the distinction between training 
or trimming the plant into some desired form, and 
pruning for definite results in the welfare of the 
plant and in fruit -bearing. 

THE FOBM OF THE TOP 

Much of the discussion respecting the best way 
in which to prune young plants is confused be- 
cause the disputants are not agreed upon the form 
of top which it is desired to produce. It goes 
without saying that different treatments must be 
given two trees if one is to have a high head and 

M (193) 



194 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

one a low head; and yet persons give the most 
dogmatic advice upon the pruning of newly -set 
trees, without once stopping to consider what form 
or height of tree is to be ultimately obtained. It 
will be well, therefore, to have a brief discussion 
of the form of the top before considering the 
details of practice. 

The form of the top is largely a matter of per- 
sonal preference, as we have already said ; but 
there are distinct arguments in favor of various 
ideals. It is not the province of this book to 
consider these arguments, for they are not pri- 
marily matters of pruning. The book desires 
only to aid the operator in working out his ideal, 
not in deciding what ideal is best for his condi- 
tions. Yet a few general hints may be given. 

The mental ideal has freest scope in ornamental 
plants, for questions of profit and loss enter very 
little into the problem. As a question of art, it 
should be said that the natural habit of the plant 
is, in nearly all instances, far better than an 
artificial or geometrical habit. This is both be- 
cause of the greater intrinsic beauty of a free- 
growing tree or shrub, and because the plant is 
less important for its own sake than for the part 
it contributes to the general foliage -mass of the 
place. These questions are somewhat fully dis- 
cussed in "Garden -Making." The satisfaction 
derived from a formal bush resides in the perfect- 
ness of its formality. As soon as it becomes 



THE FORMAL HEAD 



195 



ragged, it is unkempt, and is neither formal nor 
free. The suggestion is, that trees and shrubs 
which are trimmed into formal shape should be 
sheared several times dur- 
ing the growing season, 
not in winter alone. Fig. 
119 illustrates the point. 
The bush was sheared in 
winter. The operator 
wanted a flat -topped and 
thick -topped specimen ; 
but he had such a speci- 
men only in winter, for 
the bush began to cover 
its shame with the first 
opportunity of spring, 
by making long and free 
growths. 

In this case (Fig. 119), 
therefore, the strong new 
growth is a blemish, because the operator did not 
want it (although it should be said that he took 
the very best means to secure it by pruning 
heavily in winter). In a fruit-tree, however, a 
similar growth might not be a blemish, because 
the object of heading -back in this case is not to 
produce a definite form of tree, but to keep the 
plant within bounds, and to modify the fruit- 
bearing habit. Fig. 120 shows headed-in plum 
trees as they look when first leaved out. Fig. 121 




119. The winter-sheared 
bush. 



196 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

shows the appearance in fall, after the season ^s 
growth has taken place. These pictures are made 
from selected and typical trees, as grown by a man 
in the famons plum -growing region at Geneva, 
New York, where heading -in is much practiced. 
From one -third to two -thirds of the annual 
growth is sheared off every winter. 

In distinction from these plum trees, let the 
reader consider Fig. 122. This picture is made 




120. Headed-in plum trees. May. 

from a typical plum tree as grown by a New York 
man who does not head -in his trees. Both these 
men are successful plum -growers. The trees bear 
as well in the one case as in the other. Shall I 
head -in my plum trees? That depends upon 
whether you want trees like Fig. 120 or Fig. 122, 
— that is, upon whether you want to head them 
in or whether you do not ! 

The relative merits of high heads or low heads 
for fruit trees are always in dispute. This con- 



HIGH AND LOW HEADS 



197 



troversy is partly the result of confusion of ideas, 
and partly of differing mental ideals and of va- 
rying climates. Two factors are chiefly con- 
cerned in these disputes,— the question of ease of 
cultivation, and the question of injury to the 
trunk by sun -scald. It is the commonest notion 
that short trunks necessarily make low heads, and 
yet anyone who can see a tree should know bet- 
ter. The number of trunks which a tree has, does 
not determine the direction of the leaf -bearing 
limbs. The tree in 
Fig. 123 can be 
worked around as 



^ 
*» € , 



1 



i? 



... 4 ij -,Ki %} tlA % -^ "T 

easily as it could be %/^'\SM 
if it had only one IvFl 
long trunk. In fact, 
branches which start 
high from a trunk 
are very apt to be- 
come horizontal and 
to droop. There must 
be a certain number 
of main or scaffold 
limbs to form the 
head. If these limbs 
are taken out compar- 
atively low, they may 
be trained in an upright direction and hold their 
weight and position. If they are started out very 
high, they will not take such an upright direction, 




121. Headed-in plum tree. 
September. 



198 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



because the tree will uot grow beyond its normal 
stature. High -trained trees are often practically 
lowest -headed. Tillage is as easy about such a 
tree as Fig. 124 as about one like Fig. 125; and 




122. Free-growiug plum tree. 

the former Avill often hold its shape the longer if 
properly pruned. The question of the relation of 
modern tillage of orchards to low heads is dis- 
cussed in "Principles of Fruit- Growing." 

In regions where tree trunks are apt to sun- 



HIGH AND LOW HEADS 



199 



scald, the bodies should be short. In nearly all 
regions outside of the Atlantic States this danger 
threatens, and it is often serious on the Plains 
and westward. Nearly all writers urge short 
bodies and low heads 



m^^ 



■J 



for the Pacific Coast. ^ 

In the Plains regions ,d^^ 
it is a common prac- 
tice to shade the trunk 
by some artificial 
means, but it is a 
question if low -head- 
ing would not be a 
better practice. 

What length of 
trunk constitutes a 
high head or a low 
one, depends upon the 
species of tree under 
consideration. In ap- 
ple trees it may be 
said that a top is high 

when the branches start not less than five feet 
above the ground, and low when they start not 
over three feet. Pears, peaches and plums are sel- 
dom started as high as five feet. The question of 
high or low heads is largely one of climate, meth- 
ods of tillage to be employed, and kind of tree; but 
the writer believes that in the East the commoner 
error is to train too high rather than too low. 




123. 



A high-headed short-trunked 
tree. 



200 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



Wickson*, of California, protests strongly 
against the prevailing fashion of high -topped 
trees : " Low heading has for us all the advan- 
tages for which this practice is approved in other 




124. Vase-form peach tree. 



f^/^j:. 



parts of the world; viz., accessibility of fruit 
and ease of pruning, symmetry and solidity, and 
consequent decrease of danger from high winds, 
and greater facility of approach to the trunk 
with the horse in cultivation. This last point 
has been contested on our own soil, for experi- 



' California Fruits," 149. 




125. A long trunk does not necessarily give a high top. 



202 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



ence has demonstrated that properly trained trees 
with low heads and obliquely -rising branches are 
handier for the cultivator than high -headed trees 
with drooping, horizontal branches. But these 




A^-t^sr^ 



126. Open-centered framework for apple tree. 



general advantages of low -trained trees are not 
the chief ones secured in California in low -head- 
ing. Hundreds of thousands of trees have been 
destroyed by the exposure of a long, bare trunk 
to the rays of the afternoon sun. The sun- 
burned sides have given the conditions desired 



TWO TYPES OF APPLE HEADS 



203 



by borers, and destruction has quickly followed. 
Sometimes young trees have not survived their 
first season in the orchard, because of burned 







127. Ideal framework for apple tree. 



bark ; or this, with the added injury of borers. 
It is found by California experience that the 
growth is more vigorous in the branches when 
they emerge near the ground." 



204 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

The number of main or scaffold limbs should 
be decided upon, in a general way, before prun- 
ing of the young tree is seriously begun. Too 
many limbs are more frequent than too few. 
Four or five scaffold limbs are usually sufiicient 
for an orchard tree. The operator should also 
consider whether he wants the trunk to continue 
beyond the branches. Figs. 126 and 127 suggest 
the problem. In Fig. 126 is shown a "single 
story" apple tree, and in Fig. 127 a "double 
story" tree. It is impossible to secure the latter 
form in all varieties of apples, and rarely possible 
with peaches, but it is nearly always easily secured 
with pears. Wherever such form can be obtained, 
the writer believes that it (Fig. 127) is to be 
preferred. It is then possible to secure a greater 
surface for fruit-bearing, the load is more evenly 
distributed, and there is less danger of splitting 
of crotches. ; This high -centered framework is 
secured by allowing the leader to continue. The 
leader may be cut back when the tree is planted, 
but a new one will start, and this may be allowed 
to grow. It will soon reach the limit of its 
height and make a normal system of branches, 
as shown in Fig. 127. 

Two most important points in the general prun- 
ing of fruit trees are, (1) to determine upon the 
proper framework for the top, and (2) to there- 
after keep the tree open and shapely, allowing 
it to continue its natural habit of growth. 



TRIMMING YOUNG TREES 205 

HOW TO TBIM YOUNG PLANTS 

The general questions involved in the pruning of 
woody plants when they are transplanted are dis- 
cussed in "Principles of Fruit -Growing"; and 
that account is here reproduced, after the study of 
which we may proceed to a consideration of va- 
rious specific applications. 

"So far as the root is concerned, it is advisable 
to cut away all roots which are broken or badly 
torn. These should be cut off just back of the 
injury. It is the custom to cut off the ends of all 
roots of the size of a lead pencil or larger, for a 
clean, smooth wound is supposed to heal quicker 
than a ragged one. These cuts are made from 
within outwards, so that the wound is more or 
less slanting across the roots, and so that it rests 
firmly upon the ground when the tree is set. 
When the tree is planted, all the roots should be 
straightened out to nearly or quite their normal 
position. If it is found that one or two roots 
run off to an inordinate length, they may be cut 
back to correspond somewhat with the main root 
system. 

"Perhaps half the entire root system of the 
young tree is left in the ground when it is dug. 
It is, therefore, evident that the top should be cut 
back to a corresponding amount. In fact, the 
top should be more severely shortened -in than 
the root, because the root, in addition to being 
reduced, is also dislodged from the soil, with 



206 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

which it must establish a new union before it can 
resume the normal activities. Trees which are 
allowed to carry too much top when planted may 
fail outright to grow; or if they start, they are 
very likely to be overtaken by the droughts of 
summer. Even if they live, the growth is gen- 
erally small and uncertain, and the tree may fall 
a prey to borers or a victim to high winds. On 
the other hand, trees may be trimmed too severely 
when set. Except possibly in the case of peaches, 
it is probably unwise to trim the trees to a mere 
pole; and with peaches, it maybe better to leave 
spurs with at least one bud than to trim to a whip. 
There should be a number of strong, bright buds 
left upon the top, for these are the points where 
early and active growth begins. These buds are 
upon strong branches. If they are removed, the 
weaker or half dormant buds upon the main trunk 
or low down in the crotches must take up the 
work, and these start slowly and often feebly. 

"There are two general methods of trimming 
the tops of j^oung trees at planting time. One 
method cuts back all the branches to spurs of 
from one to three buds; or sometimes, particularly 
with dwarf pears set when two years old, the side 
branches may be cut entirely away, leaving only 
the buds on the main stem or trunk. The tree, 
therefore, 'feathers out' the first season; that is, it 
makes many small shoots along the main trunk. 
The following fall or spring, the top is started at 



TRIMMING YOUNG TREES 



207 



the desired height. Fig. 128 shows a peach tree 
as received from the nursery, and Fig. 129 the 
same tree trimmed in this manner, ready for 





128. Peach 
tree as re- 
ceived from 
the nursery. 



129. The tree 
pruned. 



130. Pear tree. 



131. The 

same 
pruned. 



planting. This method is the one generally best 
adapted to the peach, which is always set when a 
year old; but for other fruits, unless the trees are 
slender and without good, branchy tops, it is 
doubtful if it is the best practice. If the bodies 



208 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

are thought not to be stiff enough, this manner 
of trimming may be used to good advantage. 
The main shoot should usually be headed -back in 
this as in all styles of trimming, in order to make 
the trunk stocky. 

" The second method aims to start the top at 
the required height when the tree is planted. It 
is adapted only to strong and well grown stocks 
which have a more or less branching and forking 
top. From three to five of the best branches are 
left, and these are headed -back to a few buds 
each. Fig. 130 shows a pear tree, trimmed in 
Fig. 131, and the illustration may be considered 
to represent a good example of its class. Many 
of our best planters prefer the spur system for 
all trees, and there are some who would trim all 
newly set trees to a straight whip; but there is 
much to be said for both methods. 

"It may be said in general, then, that peach 
trees and all small or slender trees, should be 
well headed -back and spurred (Fig. 129) ; but 
that strong, well -branched trees may have the 
head started at the desired height at the time of 
setting, all the branches being well headed -back 
(Figs. 130 and 131). Fig. 132 shows a small 
plum tree cut to spurs, and the roots have also 
been properly dressed. Figs. 133 and 134 show 
second-class apple trees. In these the tops are 
not well formed, and it might be best to trim to 
a whip, allowing the branches A to become the 




132. YouBg 

plum stock 

well trimined, 

N 



133. Second-class apple 
tree, showing leader 
at A. 



134. Second-class 
tree, showing leader 
at A. 



210 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



leaders. Such whips may look very crooked and 
scrawny, but they will straighten as they grow. 
The lines in Fig. 135 show where a grape plant 

should be pruned. The 
top should be cut at a 
and &, the upper roots 
trimmed off at c and 
d^ and the main roots 
cut in from e to /. 

"The trees may be 
trimmed before they 
are planted, although 
it is generally better to 
do it just after they 
are set, especially if 
the tree is trimmed 
after the method of 
Fig. 131, for one can 
then better estimate the 
proper height, the ope- 
ration is easier done, 
and there is no further 
danger of breaking off 

TS. Grape plant, showing where ^hc limbs by the hau- 

it should be pruned. dling of the tree. One 

foot is planted firmly at 
the base of the tree, and then with one hand 
the branch to be removed is bent upwards and 
with the other the knife is applied to the under 
side, and the cut is made neatly and easily (Fig. 




TRIMMING WHEN SETTING 



211 



136). Never cut downwards on a limb, for 

a ragged wound nearly always follows. 
"In fall -set trees it is 

generally inadvisable to 

prune them before spring 

(unless the tops are so 

heavy and the bodies so 

weak that they are likely 

to be injured by wind), 

because the cut surfaces 

are likely to dry out. The 

roots of the tree are not 

yet sufficiently established % 

in the soil to supply the 

added evaporation which 

takes place from the 

wounds. If it seems to 
be desirable to 
trim the trees 
when they are 
set, they should 
be cut back 

only part way. They may be cut 
again, to fresh wood, in the spring." 
(Page 96.) 

Having the general subject now well 
in mind, we may consider various par- 
ticular questions of practice. The ex- 
where to cut ^^^^ ^^ which Cutting -back may be 
the limbs, desirable in young trees is shown in 





13(3. Trimming a newly - 
set tree. 



212 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



the various preceding pictures. It is also illus- 
trated in Figs. 137 and 138, in each of which 
the marks across the branches show where the 
cutting may be done. Fig. 139 is designed to 




wmmmme 

''^■'iMk'''' 

138. Showing where to 
cut the limbs. 




139. Trimming to 

stubs. 



show where the branches may be severed in trees 
which it is desired to head -in very closely. One 
or two of the lower branches are to be entirely 
cut off, and others cut back to one or two 
buds, as shown at c. 

In all the cases which we have so far considered, 



SHAPING THE YOUNG TREE 213 

it is assumed that the operator desires to have a 
distinct trunk to his tree, and to start the top at 
a height of three feet or more from the ground. 
It is upon this assumption that nurserymen prune 
their trees, making a single shaft. Persons who 
wish a very low -topped tree, therefore, may find 
difficulty in obtaining it from the strong -bodied 
trees which the nurserymen supply. When it is 
desired that the limbs shall start low, it is gen- 
erally best to buy yearling trees. These carry 
strong, live buds on the main shaft, with very few 
or weak side branches. What side branches may 
exist are cut off, and the tree is headed -back to 
a single whip, so that side branches are 
thrown out freely near the base of the 
plant. Fig. 140 illustrates such treat- 
ment. At the expiration of the first 
year, the tree should look something 
like that in Fig. 141, at which time 
some of the branches may be removed, 
leaving only as many as it is desired 
shall form the main or scaffold limbs. 
Some fruit-growers prefer to allow the 
leader to continue in trees of this kind ; 
but it is usually desirable to take out 
the leader and to allow the tree to 
form all its top upon four to six main 



branches, which arise at intervals "^'^- - -~ 

140 Trim- 

along the short trunk. Two -year -old ming to a 
trees may also be trimmed to a whip, whip. 




214 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



and if they are headed -in, or the young growths 
near the top are taken off as they start, one 
may expect to secure branches near the base. 





■Q-M 




lil. The second year's 
ffrowth. 




142, Two years old, 
trimmed to a whip. 



Fig. 142 shows a two -year -old tree which has 
been trimmed, to a single cane; a branch is 
starting near the ground. By heading-in this tree 
when it is set, or soon after growth begins, the 
bottom branches may be still further encouraged. 



SHAPING THE YOUNG TREE 



215 



Although peach trees are planted when they 
are one year old, they have generally been 
trimmed up in the nursery, so that the lower 
branches are destroyed. The 
tendency for such trees is to 
throw out branches near the 
top, and it is often impos- 
sible to make them branch 
within two feet of the 
ground, where many people 
desire that the top shall 
arise. Fig. 143 is a tree 
which has thrown out two 
sets of branches, one near 
the top of the long trunk, 
and the other near the base. 
After this tree has grown 
one season, it may be cut 
off at the point indicated 
by the bar ; and the tree 
should then make a low and 
vase -formed top, like that 
shown in Fig. 124. 

Balmer gives the follow- 
ing advice* for the pruning i^s. 
of young trees in Wash- 
ington (and the same advice will apply to 
California, or to any place in which low heads 
are desired) : 

♦Pruning Orchard Trees, Bull. 25, Wash. Exp. Sta. See also page 187, 




Opportunity for a 
choice. 



216 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

"Low heading is the watchword for planters in 
eastern Washington. Commence with a yearling 
tree, switches preferred [as in Fig. 140] , for in 
these we find the entire bud system intact, and 
we can head our trees at any desired height. All 
trees that naturally have a tall, upright habit of 
growth, such as apple, pear and sweet cherry, 
ought to be headed not higher than twenty to 
twenty -four inches from the ground. And all 
stone fruits, such as peaches, plums, prunes, apri- 
cots, etc., ought to be headed a little lower, say 
twelve to eighteen inches from the ground. 
Yearling trees, as usually found in the nurseries 
of the state, will range from two to four, or 
even seven or eight feet high. At planting 
time, whether it be spring or fall, these ought 
to be headed -down to the proper height. I am 
aware that it seems like a great sacrifice to take 
a strong young tree and cut away three-fourths 
of its top, but it must be done, and done at 
once; for if you allow one year to pass without 
attention to this topping, your chances to secure 
a well-formed, low-headed tree are lost. For 
while you may at any time cut a tree back to 
the desired height, yet, to cut back into wood 
that is two or three years old never gives the 
same results as does attention to this matter at 
the proper time. 

"It will be seen that the treatment of the tree 
the first season is of a very simple nature. Your 



STARTING THE HEAD LOW 217 

young orchard contains a lot of stubs sticking 
out of the ground to a height not exceeding 
two feet. During the first season's growth these 
stubs will develop numerous branches, almost 
every bud will start, and what was lately a stub 
will become a little forest of shoots. [See Fig. 
141]. * * * Allow every limb and every leaf 
to develop to its fullest extent. Remember that 
the leaves are to a tree what our lungs and 
blood are to us, — its very life. And every leaf 
you deprive the tree of in summer is robbing 
it of its tissue-forming organs. Without leaf 
action there can be no root action ; and the 
fullest development in root and branch can only 
be secured by religiously preserving the foliage. 

"We will proceed to prune our tree for the 
second time. The switch that you planted and 
headed back last year has developed a number 
of shoots, may be five or six, but more often fif- 
teen or twenty. From these select from three to 
five of the strongest, best ripened limbs (cutting 
out all the rest), at the same time exercising 
care to have them evenly fill the space around 
and above the tree. Observe carefully that no 
two limbs emerge from the trunk opposite each 
other, forming what is known as a crotch. A 
crotch in an old tree is always an evil, causing 
a weak spot, where the tree will be likely to 
break down or split during a heavy fruit crop. 
The remedy is in your own hands; w^hen you 



218 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



prune your two-year- old tree, cut out every limb 
that forms a crotch with its neighbor. 

"The tree in Fig. 144 will convey the idea of 
what a two- year- old tree ought to be like after 
having received its second pruning. Notice the 
arrangement of the limbs. All crotches have 
been avoided; from the ground to the lowest 
branches is twelve inches, and the entire height of 
the tree thirty inches. Contrast this little stocky 
tree with the weaklings of the same 
age one commonly meets in orchards 
to-day, with thin, misshapen trunk 
three or four feet high, surmounted 
by two or three long spindling 
branches, the whole innocent of 
knife and shears. No wonder our 
trees break down ; they have not 
strength to carry a heavy crop of 
fruit ! 

"After having selected the desired 
number of limbs intended to form 
the frame of the tree, shorten these 
back to within a foot of the trunk, ^^^. 
always cutting to a plump promi- 
nent bud. The tree may be spread, i^^- Pruned 

., T i J. 1 1 j-i.' the second 

or it maj^ be contracted, by cutting ^.^^ 

to a bud which points outward, for 
the former, and to a bud that inclines inward 
for the latter. You need not hope to alter the 
character of the tree by this cutting to a bud, 




STARTING THE HEAD LOW 219 

yet a little may be done to improve its shape. 
As a rule the weaker the growth the harder it 
ought to be cut back ; this will encourage an in- 
creased wood growth the following summer. 
Trees treated in this way make a growth that is 
often very perplexing to the amateur ; the result 
of this shortening -in of all the limbs will be an 
increased number of shoots to treat the follow- 
ing season. * * * 

"The third pruning is conducted on the same 
lines as the second, with this difference: Select 
the limbs you wish to continue the upward 
growth of the tree ; these will usually be not 
more than two on each of those left last year, 
observing the same care not to leave crotches, 
and shortening -in the growth made in that sea- 
son; but instead of taking off all of the inside 
shoots clean to the branch, they are left an inch 
or two long, and in the course of a season or 
two all these stubs that you leave will be con- 
verted into fruit- spurs. I would practice pruning 
if for no other reason than to develop every bud 
on all the limbs, and would treat these buds in 
such a manner that all would eventually become 
frait-spurs. * * * The third season's pruning, 
then, differs from the first and second in leaving 
a part of all the growth, instead of taking it off 
clean, as in the case of very young trees. I object 
to leaving spurs before the third season, for the 
reason that by so doing we encourage a fruit- 



220 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

ing condition in our trees at too early an age, 
and this is the very end we are trying to defeat. 

^'The necessary pruning during the following 
two or three years does not materially differ from 
that described for the third year. Let the aim 
be a symmetrical low, somewhat round-headed 
tree — the top ought not to be too full of wood — 
and not too thin ! Do not expect that every tree 
can be pruned so as to assume an ideal form, 
for in this you will be disappointed. No two 
trees have exactly the same habit of growth. 
Some are tall and close, others spreading and 
willowy. All may be vastly improved by an in- 
telligent use of the knife during the early years 
of the tree's growth. At the age of four or five 
years we find cherry, plum, and even apple and 
pear, rapidly developing fruit buds. And as 
this condition becomes evident, the use of the 
knife had better be gradually discontinued. All 
the pruning necessary on bearing trees is to en- 
courage a proper development of the leading 
shoots, and if these are making a growth of over 
twenty -four inches annually, they ought to be 
shortened -in to encourage a stocky habit of tree. 
All weak shoots appearing lower down on the 
tree should be cut back to within an inch or two 
of the limbs, thereby forming a full and correct 
system of fruit -spurs on every part of the tree." 

In contrast to this instruction for the low 
heading of trees, I insert directions given by T. 



SHAPING THE YOUNG TREE 221 

G. Yeomans & Sons, of New York, most success- 
ful fruit-growers, but who start the limbs of 
apple trees not less than six feet from the ground: 
"The trees should be carefully examined, and all 
broken or bruised roots carefully pruned; and 
with apple, standard pear and peach trees not 
over seven feet high, every side branch should 
be cut away, leaving the tree a straight stem. 
The reasons for this are: (1) this pruning will 
reduce the top to correspond with the diminished 
capacity of the roots, so [that they will furnish a 
full supply of sap, and cause it to stand and grow 
vigorously; (2) it will stand more upright, and 
not be so liable to be swayed about by the winds, 
and allows one to dispense with a stake, which 
many recommend for holding the tree in an up- 
right position, but which commonly injures, if it 
does not destroy, the tree; (3) the buds on the 
last year's growth of the upright stem will form 
all needed branches, of better form and more 
vigorous growth than the old ones would if left 
on, and will be at the necessary height from the 
ground, as cannot be the case where they are 
spurred." 

We have already discussed the importance of 
pruning near a bud (Figs. 82 and 83), because 
the part which projects beyond the bud dies and 
remains a dangerous part. We have also found 
that trees which are planted in the fall should not 
be cut back severely, because the roots, not hav- 



222 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



ing a hold upon the soil, cannot supply the mois- 
ture which is lost from the wound. The stubs 
are, therefore, cut back to a fresh bud in the 
spring, just before growth begins, leaving a stub 
above the bud not more than a quarter of an inch 
in length. Figs. 145 and 146 illustrate the 




Shaping the top. 




Shaping the top. 



proper pruning of trees with reference to the 
buds. It is considered by some pruners to be 
important to cut to a bud which stands upon the 
outside of the twig, thereby causing the top to 
spread. It is usually the top bud which grows, 
providing the stub is not dried back and the bud 
is strong and healthy. If this top bud is on the 
inside of the limb, it does not tend to spread so 
far from the perpendicular as one which is on the 



SHAPING THE YOUNG TREE 



223 



outside. Figs. 146 and 147 are made from the 
same plant, the latter illustration being taken in 
May. It will be seen that the top buds are the 
ones which have grown, and that 
the tendency of the upper growth 
at 3 is more nearly perpendicular 
than that at 1. As growth pro- 
gresses, however, the shoot 1 will 
turn upwards and will very nearly 
approach the perpendicular. It is 
not often worth the while to pay 
much attention to the location of 
the upper bud, with re- 
spect to the axis of the 
shoot, but it is certainly 
important to trim back 
to a strong, healthy bud. 
The illustrations 145 
and 146 show the proper method 
of leaving the main scaffold 
branches. They arise alternately 
from the main stem, and there- 
fore do not form crotches, and 
there is little danger that such 
injuries will occur as that shown 
in Fig. 105. If it is desired that 
the leader shall continue so as to 
form a two-storied tree, like that 
in Fig, 127, the shoot from the 
uppermost bud may be allowed to 




147. How the 
growth starts. . 



224 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



grow for this purpose. That is, even though 
the leader is cut off, the plant throws out a 
new one, as we have already seen (Section 4, 
Chapter IV.).; 

It is often impossible to start the top in the 
form in which we desire, and our ideals may 




148. The scaffold limbs. 

change from year to year, so that we may be 
called upon to modify the form which we at first 
projected. It will also be necessary to thin the 
top considerably, else too many scaffold limbs 
will arise. Fig. 148 shows a Bartlett pear tree 
at the end of its second year in the orchard. At 
the left, the unpruned tree is shown; and at the 
right, all the limbs have been removed except 
three, which it is desired shall form the frame- 
work of the tree. When set, this tree was cut 



SHAPING THE YOUNG TREE 



225 



back to three limbs, as may be determined by the 
method of branching of the specimen upon the 
left; and from the end of each of these stubs two 
or three branches arose during the next season. 
Now that the tree has established itself, and it is 
no longer necessary to head -in the young growths, 
this forking branching will not occur, and the 




149. Raising the top. 



tree will now need comparatively little attention 
in pruning, except, of course, that all the super- 
fluous growth shall be removed each year. Fig. 
149 shows the treatment of a Bartlett pear which 
the owner had started too low. He has now taken 
off the lower circles of limbs and has elevated the 
top by about a foot, leaving two or three stubs 
for the foundation of his growth for the year to 
come. 

There is more difficulty in starting the tops of 
o 



226 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



peach trees than of most other fruits, from the 
fact, as has been said, that the trees are usually 
pruned too high in the nursery. The trees are 
also likely to die back from the top, especially if 
they have been set in the fall; and since they 
have few buds on their bodies, they may throw 
out adventitious shoots near the point of union 
of the bud with the stock. Fig. 150 shows a 
typical case of this kind, in which the trunk 
A has died back nearly to the ground. The 
two lowermost branches arise from the stock and 

are, therefore, to be 
sacrificed; but the first 
strong shoot which 
comes from the bud is 
allowed to grow, and 
all the rest is cut away, 
as shown in Fig. 151. 
The grower now has 
the plant under his con- 
trol, and can start the 
top where he may 
choose. Peach trees 
also have a tendency 
to throw out strong 
growths from one side 
and to be blind or dormant on the other side. 
Such one-sided growth from the top of a peach 
trunk is shown in Fig. 152. In this figure, 
the long trunk has been cut back to the 




150. A common 

fault with peach 

trees. 



AWKWARD PEACH TREES 



227 



branches should now be 
six buds. Strong shoots, 



branches, and these 
headed -in to five or 
with an upward 
tendency, will now 
start from the base 
of these branches, 
and at the end 
of the second year, 
a tree something 
like that in Fig. 
153 may be se- 
cured. If it is de- 
sired to start the 
limbs of a peach tree 
very low, to make a 152. Inother trouble 

low head, the tree with young peach 

should be cut to a *'*^^'° 

stub a foot or two long when it is planted 




153. How to 

correct 

it. 



BOOT-PRUNING 

In order to understand the vexed question of 
root-pruning, it is necessary that the subject be 
analyzed. We prune the roots 

I. Of established plants— 

1. To keep the growth within bounds, 

particularly when it is desired that the 
plant shall be dwarf ; 

2. To concentrate or contract the foraging 

of the roots; 

3. To make plants fruitful. 



228 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

II. Of plants which are being transplanted. 

We have already found (Section 2, Chap. IV.) 
that root -pruning checks growth: it cuts off a 
part of the food supply. Checking growth in- 
duces fruitfulness (Section 11, Chap. IV.). The 
same principles of physiology govern the practice 
of root -pruning as that of top -pruning. The 
wounds heal by the formation of a callus, germs 
of decay enter exposed wounds, new or adventi- 
tious roots start as the result of heavy pruning, 
the severed leader (or tap-root) tends to renew 
itself (see Fig. 115), and the general remarks 
respecting seasons for pruning apply to roots with 
nearly the same force as to tops. Since roots 
have no buds, the new branches do not arise in as 
definite order as they do on tops, but this is a mat- 
ter of no consequence, for the shape of the root 
system is of no practical importance. The direc- 
tion of the roots is important, however, — whether 
they run horizontally and near the surface, or 
perpendicularly. The direction of the roots, how- 
ever, is not determined primarily by methods of 
pruning, but by the nature of the plant, by the 
soil, and the position of moisture and food. 

The root -pruning of established plants is prac- 
ticable only on a small scale. It is practiced in 
amateur plantations, or in those cases in which 
it is desired to keep plants within definite bounds 
or shapes. It is essentially a garden idea. It is 
practiced in European enclosures, in the growing 



ROOT -PRUNING 229 

of trees to pyramids, cordons, on espaliers, and 
the like (see Chapter VI.). By cutting the roots, 
they are kept within a prescribed area, and do not 
interfere with other plants. The tops of the plants 
are thereby checked of exuberant growth, and are 
more manageable on walls and trellises. In 
Europe, these small bearing trees are often taken 
up and replanted, in order to keep them within 
bounds. In the well tilled gardens, and in cool 
and moist climates, it is often thought to be de- 
sirable to keep the roots near the surface ; but in 
American orchard conditions it is desirable that 
the roots strike deep. 

In the large -area or field conditions under 
which American fruits are grown, root -pruning 
is rarely necessary or even useful. Under such 
conditions, the plant takes its natural habit and 
reaches its normal stature, and fruit -bearing comes 
naturally with the maturity of the plant ; or, if 
fruit -bearing does not come, the fundamental 
treatment lies in correcting faults of tillage, soil, 
varieties, or other cardinal matters. In our 
country, root -pruning may be associated with 
ringing or girdling, and such other special opera- 
tions which may be used experimentally now and 
then, when other means have failed. It is of 
special rather than of general importance. 

The European books and periodicals contain 
many detailed instructions for root -pruning, and 
to these the reader should go if he desires ex- 



230 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

plicit information on practices. A single typical 
quotation is here inserted to show the general 
nature of the advice. 

^^Boot-pruning of pyramidal pear trees on quince stocks.* 
— Before entering on the subject of root-pruning of pear 
trees on quince stocks, I must premise that handsome and 
fertile pyramids, more particularly of some free -bearing 
varieties, may be reared without this annual or biennial 
operation. If the annual shoots of the tree are not more 
than eight or ten inches long, no root-pruning need be 
done. I have a large plantation of pear trees on the 
quince stock, which have been made very handsome and 
fertile pyramids, yet they have not been root-pruned, 
neither do I intend to root -prune them. But I wish to 
impress upon my readers that my principal object is to 
make trees fit for small gardens, and to instruct those 
who are not blessed with a large garden how to keep the 
trees perfectly under control : and this can best be done 
by annual, or at least biennial attention to their roots ; 
for if a tree be suffered to grow three or more years, and 
then be root-pruned, it will receive a check if the spring 
be dry, and the crop of fruit for one season will be jeop- 
ardized. Therefore, those who are disinclined to the 
annual operation, and yet wish to confine the growth of 
their trees within limited bounds by root -pruning, say 
once in two years, should only operate upon half of their 
trees one season ; they will thus have the remaining half 
in an unchecked bearing state ; and those who have ample 
room and space may pinch their pyramids in summer, and 
suffer them to grow to a height of fifteen or twenty feet 
without pruning their roots. I have seen avenues of such 
trees in Belgium, really quite imposing. In rich soils, 
where the trees grow so freely as to make shoots eighteen 



*Thomas Rivers, "The Miniature Fruit Garden." 



ROOT -PRUNING 231 

inches in length in one season, they may be root -pruned 
annually with great advantage. 

"The following summary will perhaps convey my ideas 
respecting the management of pyramids and bushes when 
cultivated as garden trees. In small gardens with rich 
soils, either root-prune or remove all the trees annually 
early in November. In larger gardens, perform the same 
operation biennially at the same season. For very large 
gardens with a dry, good subsoil, in which all kinds of 
fruit trees grow without any tendency to canker, and when 
large trees are desired, neither remove nor root-prune, 
but pinch the shoots in summer, thin them in winter when 
they become crowded, and thus make your trees symmet- 
rical and fruitful. 

"Pyramidal pear trees on the quince stock, where the 
fruit garden is small, the soil rich, and when the real 
gardening artist feels pleasure in keeping them in a 
healthy and fruitful state by perfect control over the 
roots, should be annually operated upon as follows : A 
trench should be dug around the tree, about eighteen 
inches from its stem, every autumn, just after the fruit is 
gathered if the soil be suflS.ciently moist, — if not, it will 
be better to wait till the usual autumnal rains have 
fallen ; the roots should then be carefully examined, and 
those inclined to be of perpendicular growth cut with the 
spade, which must be introduced quite under the tree to 
meet on all sides, so that no root can possibly escape 
amputation. All the horizontal roots should be shortened 
with a knife to within a circle of eighteen inches from 
the stem, and all brought as near to the surface as possi- 
ble, filling in the trench with compost for the roots to 
rest on. The trench may then be filled with the compost 
(well -rotted dung and the mold from an old hotbed, 
equal parts, will answer exceedingly well); the surface 
should then be covered with some half -rotted dung and 
the roots left till the following autumn brings its annual 



232 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

care. It may be found that, after a few years of root- 
pruning, the circumferential mass of fibers will have be- 
come too much crowded with small roots ; in such cases, 
thin out some of the roots, shortening them at nine inches 
or one foot from the stem. This will cause them to give 
out fibers, so that the entire circle of three feet or more 
around the tree will be full of fibrous roots near the surface, 
waiting with open mouths for the nourishment annually 
given to them by surface dressings and liquid manure. 

"Thus far for the gardener who does not mind extra 
trouble, — who, in short, feels real pleasure in every opera- 
tion that tends to make his trees perfect in fruitfulness and 
symmetry. But it is not every amateur gardener that can 
do this, nor is it always required in the south of England, 
except for small gardens and in rich, moist soils, in which 
pear trees are inclined to grow too vigorously. But with 
our too often cool, moist summers in the northern counties, 
annual root -pruning is quite necessary to make the trees 
produce well-ripened wood. In other cases, as I have be- 
fore observed, shortening the shoots in summer, taking care 
to produce a handsome pyramidal form, and if they are 
inclined to grow vigorously, biennial root-pruning, will be 
quite sufficient." 

Root - pruning when transplanting . —Root- 
pruning results from the removal of plants. That 
is, it is practically impossible to dig up plants of 
any size — as shrubs or trees — without cutting some 
of the roots. The severed roots, when as large 
as a lead pencil, should be cut back to live, un- 
injured wood, and the wound should be clean-cut. 
This is to ensure rapid healing. How short the 
roots shall be cut is a problem to be settled for 
each case, in the same way as the similar problem 



DO ROOTS STRIKE FROM THE CALLUS? 233 

respecting the proper length to leave the branches. 
In general, it may be said that the main roots of 




154. Roots do not start from the callus. 

trees two to four years old may be left six to 
eight inches long. 

There is much discussion as to where the new 
roots arise in transplanted trees. It should first 
be said that the roots do not necessarily arise 
from the callus,* although this is the almost uni- 

*See also, L. C, Corbett, 9th Ann. Rep. W. Va. Exp. Sta., 196. 



234 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

versal notion. In fact, they very rarely, if ever, 
arise as an outgrowth of the callus tissue. From 
an apple tree two years old, one side of the root 
was shaved. The tree was planted, and after 
growing two years, was taken up and photo- 
graphed (Fig. 154). The callus had formed on 
both sides of the wound, but no roots had started 
from it. 

The new roots usually arise from firm, strong 
roots the size of a lead pencil or larger; but they 
may also arise from the hair -like roots which are 
on the tree when it is transplanted, although the 
common opinion is to the contrary. The place 
from which the new roots arise is largely deter- 
mined by the habit of the individual plant. In 
some cases, all the roots will spring from the main 
shaft or trunk, and in others they seem to arise 
almost indiscriminately from the trunk, large 
roots and very fine roots. The figures, carefully 
drawn, from actual examples of apple trees, illus- 
trate the point. The root shown in Fig. 155 was 
trimmed of all its fine roots when transplanted. 
It is seen that the new roots start from various 
parts of the root system. The root in Fig. 156 
had some small, but not very fine, roots left. The 
new roots are starting from near the ends of these 
roots, large and small alike. (See also Fig. 161.) 
In none of these cases do the roots start from the 
calluses. The common notion that roots will start 
directly downward if the old roots are cut diago- 



DO ROOTS FORM PROM THE CALLUS? 285 

nally on the under side, so that the callus looks 
downwards, is a fallacy. The direction of the 
roots, as already said (page 228), is determined 




155. Where the new 
roots start. 



156. Where the new 
roots start. 



by the nature of the plant, the texture of the 
soil, and by the water and food supply. The 
position of the callus does not influence it. 
As a matter of practice, it is generally inad- 



236 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

visable to exercise much care to save the very fine 
roots when transplanting shrubs and trees, for 
such roots are apt to be killed by short exposure 
to the weather, and to be injured in shipping and 
transplanting ; but the common notion that they 
are of no use in a transplanted tree, and that 
new roots do not arise from them, is false. 

Within the past few years a so-called system 
of close root -pruning has been advocated in this 
country. It is the result of the experiments and 
writings of H. M. Stringfellow, of Texas, and 
has come to be known as the Stringfellow or 
stub -root system. It cuts off practically all the 
roots, leaving only stubs an inch or two long ; 
and it cuts back the tops to a mere stump twelve 
to eighteen inches high. This method of treat- 
ing trees at transplanting time has been the 
subject of writings which are distinguished more 
for their controversial spirit and their evident 
attempt to uphold an hypothesis than for any 
clear analysis of the subject. The best exposi- 
tion of the subject is contained in Stringfellow 's 
"New Horticulture", published in 1896.* 

There seem to be three leading conceptions 



*Soine of the current writings may be found in Texas Farm and 
Ranch, 1895, reprinted in Galveston Tribune, Dec. 20, 1895 ; Fruit 
Growers' Journal, Feb. 15, 1894, Feb. 1 and May 1, 1896 ; California 
Fruit Grower, May 30, 1896, Excellent contributions in support of the 
method, by T. L. Brunk, may be found in American Farmer, July 15, 
1892, and Fruit-Growers' Journal, Jan. 15, 1896. Report of experiments 
is made in Bull. 39, Texas Exp. Sta , by R. H. Price. 



THE STRINGFELLOW THEORY 237 

upon which the superiority of this stub -root sys- 
tem is assumed to rest : Seedling non- trans- 
planted trees are longer -lived, hardier and 
healthier than the trees of orchards ; this su- 
periority is largely due to the presence of a tap- 
root system ; the nearer the transplanted tree is 
reduced to the form of a young seedling or cut- 
ting, the greater is its tendency to develop a 
tap-root system. All these categories are mere 
assumptions. The old seedling trees at which 
we wonder are a few out of many. For every 
one that has reached a hale old age, hundreds 
have probably perished; and since the dead are 
not in evidence, we enlarge the exception into 
the rule. As a matter of fact, the orchards of 
to-day, at least in the East, are more uniformly 
healthy and productive than the seedling or- 
chards of other days. In our time, every 
break in the orchard is missed and commented 
upon ; in those times, the breaks were of small 
consequence.* 

In the second place, a tap-root is not an in- 



*A fuller discussion of this question may be read in Essay XX., 
"Survival of the Unlike". Mr. Stringfello-w cites such seedlings as the 
original tree of Sudduth pear and Mammoth Black Twig apple. It 
would be interesting to know what has become of all the other seed- 
ling pears and apples which presumably started at about the same time. 
Such trees are isolated facts, not averages; they do not necessarily 
show laws or tendencies. It is easy to find such patriarchs among 
grafted and transplanted trees. For example, the so-called original 
Tompkins County King apple is a grafted and transplanted tree, and 
it still bears well, although about seventy years old, and outliving 
most of its progeny. 



238 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

variable attribute of seedlings, any more than 
a distinct leader is always an attribute of their 
tops. Some plants have tap-roots and some do 
not. They vary in this regard, as they do in 
stature, form, kind of fruit, or habit of growth. 
When seedlings first start, they usually -£ave a 
tap-root, but this tap-root tends to vanish as the 
root system enlarges and becomes diffuse,- in the 
same way that the leader in the top may be- lost. 
There is no evidence that a tree necessarily 
thrives better if it has a tap-root (see page 151). 

In the third place, a tap-root does not form 
merely because the roots are cut long or short, 
or in one way or another. If it is the habit 
of a plant to develop a tai3-root, it will generally 
do so, even after its original tap is cut (Fig. 
115), unless prevented by some peculiarity of soil. 
It will generally throw down two or even several 
tap-roots instead of one. It must follow, how- 
ever, that in short -pruned roots, these new 
leaders will be very close together and approxi- 
mately under the main shaft of the tree, and 
therefore appear to constitute a truer tap-root 
system than when they arise at some distance to 
the side of the main shaft ; and it is probable 
that the centermost ones will tend to be the 
stronger. 

The gist of the whole matter, so far as the 
theory is concerned, is that individual instances 
and the results of certain experiments have been 



STUB -ROOT PRUNING 



239 



enlarged into an hypothesis which has been ap- 
plied to all plants. The stub-root system is 
really not a system at all. It is not founded 
on a body of principles. It is a matter of 
practice, which will sometimes be useful and 





157. Stringfellow's model. 



158, The wrong ideal. 



sometimes not. Its success depends on local and 
incidental conditions. It would be as true to say 
that because many people find the pyramidal 
training of dwarf pears to be useful, therefore 
it is necessarily best everywhere and for all 
species and varieties. 

The accompanying pictures, from Stringfellow s 
"New Horticulture," show the method of this 
stub -root pruning. Fig. 157 is the correct form, 
—"cut back just below the collar, and just under 
the first good side roots.'' We should "not leave 
any length of the main or tap-root, with side 



240 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



roots cut back,"* as in Fig, 158. It is impossible 
to cut Fig. 158 to the form of Fig. 157, because 
the root did not grow in the same way. 
This is true of most trees, especially if 
budded stock ; they cannot be cut ac- 
cording to directions. Peach trees lend 
themselves most readily to this form ; 
also cutting -grown pear trees (such as 
are grown in the South) . The theory 
is that the new roots arise from the 
under surfaces of roots which are cut 
as in Fig. 157, and then grow directly 
downwards. Fig. 159 is Brunk's model 
of a peach tree properly trimmed, show- 
ing both root and top, the whole being 
only fifteen inches long. Fig. 160 shows 
the results which Mr. Stringfellow secures 
from stub -roots and long roots. 

In 1896, experiments on 
the stub -root pruning were 
begun at Cornell, and these 
are now reported. This 
account of the tests is in- 
serted more for the purpose 
of affording concrete in- 
stances with which to discuss 
the statements advanced in 
support of stub -root prun- 




159. Brunk's 
model. 



*"Hold the tree top down, and cut all roots back to about an inch, 
sloping the cuts so that when the tree is set the cut surface is down- 



STUB -ROOT PRUNING 



241 



ing than to make a record of an experiment. 
Not all the trees were trimmed in the String- 
fellow fashion, for other problems than mere 
stub -root pruning- were in mind. Besides the 
four hundred trees here reported, the roots of 
two hundred apple trees were cut in different 





160. Results of stub-root and long-root pruning (after 

Stringfellov/). No. 1, trimmed to stubs ; No. 2, ordinary 

long roots, 

ways, in order that the formation of the new 
root system might be studied. The trees were 
commercial northern -grown, and were set in a 
moist and well -tilled sandy loam. They were 
set on the 4th of May, which was as early as 



wards. Experience has shown that the roots are generally emitted per- 
pendicularly to the plane or surface of the cut. This final pruning should 
be done shortly before planting, so as to present a fresh surface for the 
callus to form on. If trees are to be kept some time, or shipped by a 
nurseryman, about two inches of root should be left, the planter to cut 
back as directed when the tree is set. About a foot of top should be left. 
More or less makes no difference. If the tree is well staked, three feet 
may be left without diminishing the growth much." — Stringfellow in 
"TAe New Horticulture," 85. 



242 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



the ground could be fitted. Every care was taken 
to have all the conditions ideal and uniform. One 
hundred trees were set each of peach, plum, pear 

and apple. Each kind was 
divided into four or five 
lots, one lot being cut 
very short, and the others 
successively longer, until 
the last lot, in which the 
roots were not trimmed. 
The weather for the first 
month after planting was 
hot and drj^ but the land 
was frequently tilled to 
conserve the moisture. 

The trees were photo- 
graphed before being 
planted, and some of 
them were removed at 
intervals and again pho- 
New roots start tographcd. In this way, 

from both the trunk and the the prOCCSS of rOOt form- 

flne roots. ^^^^^^ ^^^ Carefully studied. 

It was found, as I have already indicated (pages 
228, 235), that neither the place of origin of 
the new roots nor the direction of them was 
determined by the mode of pruning. Fig. 161 
is an apple root trimmed to a simple stub, with 
some of the fine side roots, «, left on. The new 
roots arose both from the main trunk and from 




STRINGFELLOW ROOT - PRUNING 



243 





the small rootlets, and none of tliem arose from 
the callus ; and there was no tendency for them 
to arise from the lower end of the stub (compare 
Figs. 154, 155, 156). 
Two similar apple trees 
were trimmed in diifer- 
ent waj^s, and a month 
after planting they were 
taken up and engravings 
made. The close-pruned 
specimen (Fig. 162) was 
barely alive, but the 
other (Fig. 163) was 
making a good growth. 
The roots shown in 
Figs. 161 and 162 are 
not of the form pre- 
scribed by Mr. String- 
fellow, nor is it possi- 
ble to prune most strong 
New -York -grown trees 
in that fashion. How- 
ever, many of the trees 
had strong lateral roots, 
and with these care was 
taken to copy the ortho- 
dox form; and some 
of these are illustrated. 
1R9 -DA A For example, Fiff. 164 ,,.^ ,, 

162. Reduced ^ ' s "^ 2g3_ Better results 

to a cutting. showS the rOOts of four with roots left. 





244 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



average peach trees after they had grown two 
seasons. The one at the left was trimmed to 
the form advised in Fig. 157, and yet it was 
the most shallow -rooted of all the trees ; and 




164. Typical results in peach trees. 



many other trees told the same story. Yet this 
mode of pruning has for its object "to con- 
centrate all the vital energy of the newly set 
tree on a limited root -surface, and compel it to 
strike several strong, perpendicular tap-roots, 
and while doing this, not to allow its attention 
to be diverted to forming side or lateral roots 
at the same time."* 

Some of the facts of this experiment at Cornell 
may be presented in the following form (the 
planting dates being in May, 1896, and the final 
notes taken December, 1897) : 



*Stringfellow, "New Hortictdture," 100. 



ROOT -PRUNING PEACHES 245 

Peach (Horton Eivers) 

{Twenty trees in each, lot) 

A. Roots normal, six inches long. Sixteen lived. All roots 

had a strong downward tendency. See right-hand 
root in Fig. 164. Average weight of trees, December, 
1897, seventeen pounds. 

B. Roots cut to four and one-half inches long. Eighteen 

lived. The strongest, thriftiest, most shapely trees 
in any of the lots. Roots all striking downwards. 

C. Roots cut to three inches long. Fifteen lived. Ten had 

downward -growing roots, and five had very flat or 
horizontal root systems. 

D. Roots cut to two inches long. Nine lived. Five had down- 

ward-growing roots and four had horizontal roots. 

E. Roots cut to one inch long. Twelve lived. Six had roots 

with downward tendency, and six had all roots almost 
perfectly horizontal. The three left-hand specimens in 
Fig. 164 are from this lot E. The tree on the extreme 
left weighed one pound fourteen ounces, and rep- 
resents an average specimen. The second from the 
left weighed five pounds eight ounces, and is the 
best tree in the lot. The third from the left is the 
only one in the lot that had a distinct tap-root. It 
weighed four pounds five ounces. 

From first to last, the moderately pruned trees 
were clearly the best, and the stub -root trees were 
poor and weak, even after two years' growth. 

Pear (Bartlett) 

{Twenty-Jive trees in each lot) 

A. Normal. Roots six to eight inches long. Twenty-one 
lived; sixteen first-class trees. 



246 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



B. Tap-root not trimmed; side roots two to tliree inches 

long. Twenty -two lived; sixteen first-class trees. The 
best lot. & and bd, Fig. 165, are average roots ; h 
weighed three pounds eight ounces, and lb three 
pounds twelve ounces. 

C. Tap-root not trimmed; side roots one inch long. Fifteen 

lived; seven first-class trees. A poor lot. 

D. Tap-root cut to six inches; side roots one inch long. 

Fifteen lived; 1 first-class tree, d, Fig. 165, was the 
dd d bb b 




165. Typical results in pear trees. 



only tree in the lot worth saving, dd shows a tree still 
living after having been in the ground two years, but 
it had made no roots whatever. It was trimmed to a 
bare stump when set. Six trees behaved in this way, 
and only two of them made a callus on the wound. 
The tops did not grow, but they supported a few 
leaves. The stub -root probably absorbed a little 
moisture, and there was some food stored in the wood, 
so that the plant was able to live. 



SHORT - ROOT PRUNING 



247 



Plum (Lombard, budded on Myrobalan roots) 

{Twenty -five trees in each lot) 

A. Normal. Tap-root, eight inches; side roots, three to six 

inches. Twenty-three lived. Right-hand specimen in 
Fig. 166 is an average root. Weight of tree and root, 
five pounds ten ounces. 

B. Tap, six inches; side, two to four inches. Twenty-three 

lived. 

C. Tap, four inches; side, two inches. Twenty-four lived. 

D. Tap, four inches; sides, one inch. Twenty-two lived. 

Left-hand specimen. Fig. 166, is an average root. 
Weight six pounds ten ounces. 

All the lots were remarkably uniform in size 
and thriftiness. From the tops it would have 




166. Stub-root and long-root on plum. 

been difficult to distinguish them. The short- 
pruned roots gave the shallowest root systems, 
however. It is easy to account for the large size 
of the short -pruned trees, for the Myrobalan plum 
grows readily from cuttings. 



248 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



Apple (Hubbardston, budded stock) 

{Twenty-five trees in each lot) 

A. Normal. Eoots six to eight inches. Twenty lived ; sev- 

enteen first-class; a, Fig. 167, average specimen, one 
pound fourteen ounces. 

B. Roots two to three inches long, and tap not cut. Eigh- 

teen lived; thirteen first-class. &, Fig. 167, average 
d c d 




167. Average results on apple trees. 



specimen (a good root system!), one pound fourteen 
ounces. 

C. Roots one inch long, and tap not cut. Twenty lived; 

twelve first-class, c, Fig. 167, best specimen in the 
lot, two pounds eleven ounces. 

D. Roots one inch long, and tap cut back, thirteen lived; 

four good trees, but not first-class, and four more with 
fairly good roots but poor tops, d, Fig. 167, average 
and typical specimen. 



THE STRINGFELLOW METHOD 249 

In all these trees, except the Myrobalan plum 
roots, the short -root pruning was a decided dis- 
advantage. Yet there is no contradicting the fact 
that others have obtained good results from it, 
and it has been put to a successful commercial 
test. All this shows, as has been said (page 238), 
that stub -root pruning is to be considered a mat- 
ter of local practice, not a matter of general 
principle. The practice may be good and it may 
not : the explanation or assumed theory is wrong. 
It will probably be found to be best adapted to 
the South, where plants grow from cuttings more 
readily than in the North ; and the nature of the 
land as respects texture, and the nearness of the 
water-table, will probably influence the result. 
The kind of tree may also be important. The 
stubbing -back of the top is a disadvantage to 
those who desire to grow long -bodied trees. 

It is always well to challenge established prac- 
tices and accepted theories, for thereby we make 
progress. In this respect, Mr. Stringfellow and 
his followers have no doubt done a distinct ser- 
vice.* Perhaps we have placed too great value on 
a large root -system when transplanting trees, and 



*Aside from its merits as a matter of pruning, Mr. Stringfellow sees 
the following advantages of stub-roots: (l) Saving the nurseryman in 
digging Ms stock; (2) Saving in packing the stock; (3) Saving in trans- 
portation; (4) Saving in planting; (5) Reducing danger of carrying in- 
sects and diseases; (6) Enables the planter to set extra large trees, which 
the nurseryman now has to throw away, and thus obtain fruit much 
sooner. 



250 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

our opinions may need to be revised; but it does 
not follow that the opposite extreme is the better. 
The writer prefers trees with roots on ; but he has 
no quarrel with those who prefer them with roots off. 

SUBSEQUENT TREATMENT OF THE PLANTS 

Having now obtained a general conception of 
the type of tree which we wish to grow, and 
having started off the main or scaffold branches, 
the subsequent treatment consists in cutting out 
all interfering and superfluous limbs and keep- 
ing the top within the shape which we have in 
mind. It is impossible to give specific advice 
as to what branches should be cut, for every 
branch is a problem in itself, and must be solved 
for itself. In fruit trees, the head should be 
kept fairly open, so that all parts are exposed 
to sun and air, and the tree is made accessible 
to pickers, and easy to spray. All limbs which 
tend to make an over -vigorous growth should 
be cut out or checked, in order that the tree may 
keep its balance, and limbs which run directly 
crosswise the top, and those which rub each 
other, should be removed. 

Some of the problems connected with the form 
of the top may be suggested in a series of pic- 
tures taken from an individual tree of Rhode 
Island Greening. This tree was set in the spring 
of 1889. Having grown two years without prun- 



BEHAVIOR OP A GREENING TREE 



251 



ing, in the fall of 1890 it looked like Fig. 168. 
In the winter of 1890-1 it was pruned, as shown 
in Fig. 169. The tree stands in rich soil and 
has made a heavy growth. As the top begins 




168. Greening tree of two 
seasons' growth (1890). 



169. The same 
pruned. 



to expand, the apparent length of the trunk 
decreases, and in the fall of 1892 the tree looked 
as shown in Fig. 170 ; that is, tops which 
may appear to be very high when trees are 
young may appear to be low when the trees have 




170. The same tree, two years later (fall of 1892). 




171. The tree again pruned. 



BEHAVIOR OP A GREENING TREE 



253 



attained some age. All these pictures (168-174) 
are drawn with great care to a scale, and the 
length of trunk bears a true proportion to the 
width of the top in every case. In the winter 
of 1892-3" the tree, as shown in Fig. 170, was 
pruned to the extent shown in Fig. 171, and the 




172. The same tree starting into growth (1893). 



following summer (that is, 1893) the tree had 
the form shown in Fig. 172. Late in the season 
of 1894 the tree was drawn again, as shown in 
Fig. 173. The following winter it was again 
pruned, and in the spring of 1895 it had the 
appearance of Fig. 174. It will be seen that the 
long and stilt -like character of the tree has wholly 




173. The tree in the fall of 1894. 



«»2?. 




174. In the spring of 1895, having been pruned in 
the winter. 



PRUNING YOUNG APPLE TREES 



255 



disappeared, and the very perceptible crook in 
the trunk has tended to straighten. The tree 
now begins to have character, and its four scaf- 
fold limbs are well established. The tree is not 
ideal in form, however, since it has too much 




175. Tetofsky apple tree. 




176. The Tetofsky pruned. 



of a crotch ; and at the present time a living 
brace has been interwoven between the two 
crotches, as shown in Fig. 109. 

A Tetofsky apple tree, two years planted, is 
shown in Fig. 175. It is a variety which makes 
very few strong interior growths, and therefore 
needs comparatively little thinning. It is already 




179. Windsor cherry, four years set. 



180. The tree pruned. 



PRUNING YOUNG APPLE TREES 257 

making conspicuous fruit -spurs alongside the 
upright branches; The pruning of the tree is 
shown in Fig. 176. There are three main or 
scaifold limbs. Some of the other branches, 
which are left, it may be necessary- to remove 
as time goes on ; but it is always difficult to 
determine in the beginning just which ones are 




181. Well-formed pie cherry. 

wanted, and it is well not to trim the tree too 
heavily, so as to reduce its leaf-bearing capacity, 
and to set it into too strong growth of water- 
sprouts. 

A Longfield apple tree is shown in Fig. 177. 

The variety has a weeping habit, and the effort 

must be to encourage the upper limbs and to 

remove the lower or drooping ones. How this 

Q 



258 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



is done is shown in Fig. 178. The tree was 
started too low in the first place, and it has a 
bad crotch ; and later on, the large fork on 
the right was entirely removed. It then had 




182. Apricot in need of pruning. 



PRUNING OF YOUNG TREES 



259 



i A 





~Z^~ 



183. One way of treating Fig. 182. 



a good form, but the tree is now weeping as 
much as ever; that is, it is impossible to over- 
come the natural habit of the tree, and however 
high the Longfield may be trained, it will eventu- 
ally reach nearly or quite to the ground. 

A sweet cherry (the Windsor) is shown in Figs. 



260 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

179 and 180. This also has a bad crotch, and 
eventually one of the branches was cut away, 
as shown in a, Fig. 180, leaving a tree of good 
form, with the branches started about four feet 
high. The general thinning of the top, as shown 
in Fig. 180, is perhaps about right. A sour 
cherry (Early Richmond) is shown, after prun- 
ing, in Fig. 181. This tree has an almost ideal 
type of branching, and the pruning is about as 
near perfect as we can ordinarily make it. 

An apricot tree is shown in Figs. 182 and 
183. This tree grows against the south side of 
a building, although it is not trained on the 
wall. It is desired, therefore, to have a very 
flat and spreading top. The branches were 
started low, but they arise too nearly from a 
common point, thereby making a bad crotch, 
yet the apricot is less likely to split than trees 
which bear heavier loads of fruit. The tree 
was neglected for three or four years, and when 
pruning became necessary, it was thinned out to 
the extent shown in Fig. 183. The head can 
thereafter be kept free and open with only a 
slight amount of annual cutting. 

A neglected peach tree, four years planted, 
is shown in Fig. 184. It is very thick, and some 
of the lower branches are weak and almost dead 
because they have been overshaded by the dense 
top. This tree was pruned to the form shown 
in Fig. 185, and is now a handsome and prolific 




184. Neglected peach tree, four years set. 



185. The tree pruned. 




186. Two-year-set peach tree, before 
pruning (Hale). 




•^itei-;^ 



"^^.r- 



187. The peach tree pruned 
and headed-back. 



262 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



tree. Figs. 186 and 187 are adapted from photo- 
graphs published by J. H. Hale, to show the 




188. Headed-back upon transplanting. 

methods of treating a peach tree. In Fig. 187, 
the tree has been thinned and headed -back. 

In the transplanting of large or established 
trees, it is very necessarv that the tops be headed- 



TOP -WORKED TREES 263 

back, and the more serious the cutting of the 
roots, the more extensive should be the cutting- 
in of the top. Fig. 188 shows a six -year -old 
cherry tree which has been cut back after trans- 
planting. In all such cases, it is important 
that old and dry stubs are not left on the trees. 
The stubs should be cut back from time to time 
as new branches start, always giving preference 
to the strong growth, and cutting out the feeble 
wood. 

MANAGEMENT OF TOP-WOBKED TREES 

When trees are top -budded or top -grafted, it is 
usually the purpose to change their entire top to 
the new variety. The methods of performing 
the work, and the general position of the buds or 
grafts, are somewhat fully discussed in the last 
edition of "The Nursery -Book." In old trees it 
is generally desirable to graft all the leading 
limbs, thereby endeavoring to maintain the origi- 
nal shape as nearly as possible. In young trees, 
only two or three of the limbs can be grafted or 
budded, and sometimes the whole top is cut off 
and the main stock or trunk is grafted. The 
grafting of the main trunk has some disadvan- 
tages, because a bad fork is apt to occur at the 
graft, and it is usually better, therefore, to set 
the cions or buds in the branches. Fig. 189 shows 
the treatment of a small apple tree which is top- 
budded. Three buds are inserted, one in the 



264 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



main trunk or leader, and one in each of the two 
side branches. The buds are inserted in summer, 





' t 

i 



'■^um ' 




189. Top-budded apple tree. 

and early the next spring the limbs are cut a 
quarter of an inch above each bud, as in A. Fig. 
190 shows another tree in which many buds have 
been set, all of which are growing. It shows that 
the stubs project beyond the buds. As soon as the 



TOP -WORKED TREES 



265 




190. Top-budded apple tree. 



buds have begun to grow vigorously, these stubs 
should be cut back close to the base of the new 
branch, to facilitate their healing over. 



266 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



A strong pear tree was grafted in three limbs. 
The grafting was done in April. In September 
of the same year, the tree looked as shown in 
Fig. 191, being very much entangled with strong 




191. Top-grafted pear. 



watersprouts, because of the severe pruning. Be- 
fore growth began the following spring, all of 
this adventitious growth was removed, the tree 
then looking like Fig. 192. Some of the branches 
of the stock were left, since the grafts were not 
yet large enough to form the whole top. If too 
much of the stock is cut oif the cions tend to 



TOP -WORKED TREES 



267 



grow too long, and are likely to be broken by 
snow and wind. 

In trees which have been set only two to fonr 
years, the top can be changed in two years ; 



^%^l^ 




192. The pear tree pruned. 



but apple trees which are fifteen or twenty years 
old can ordinarily not be changed so rapidly. 
Four or five years may be required in some cases. 
Fig. 193 is a Lombard plum tree which was 
grafted to a Japanese variety. The tree was four 
years old when grafted, and the second year there- 




v-4 - ak 

193. A plum tree changed to 
a new variety. 



194. In need of 
attention. 



TOP -WORKED TREES 269 

after all the old top was removed, as shown in 
the illustration. It will now be necessary to cut 
off some of the cions and to thin out the top, 
much as if the tree were recently planted. 

It is always essential that the operator look out 
for adventitious growths or suckers from the 
stock, after the tree has been changed to the de- 
sired variety. The equilibrium of the tree has 
been so much upset by the heavy pruning that 
these watersprouts and auxiliary growths may 
arise for several years. Fig. 194 is a Kilmarnock 
willow. This is a weeping variety, which is 
grafted upon a strong, upright -growing stock. 
In this case, the stock has thrown out long 
suckers, and the drooping head is beginning to 
famish and die. These suckers should be removed 
as soon as they begin to form, else good results 
cannot be obtained with the cion. This trouble 
of suckering from the stock is very apt to occur 
in ornamental plants, as in top -worked weeping 
and variegated varieties. Such varieties are gen- 
erally weak growers, and cannot take up the 
exuberant strength of the root. 

MANAGEMENT OF DWABF TBEES 

Dwarf plants are those which do not attain 
to the normal or habitual stature of the species 
or variety to which they belong. There are two 
general categories of dwarf plants,— dwarf va- 
rieties, and dwarf individuals. The former class 



270 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

retains its dwarf ness of itself, without artificial 
aid. It is the nature of such plants to be dwarf. 
The manner of their origin is usually obscure, 
and it appeals to the plant -breeder.* The sec- 
ond class is forced to be dwarf by some treat- 
ment which is applied to each individual plant. 
Plants are dwarfed by three means, — 

By grafting or budding on a slower - growing 
root ; 

By confining the tops by means of pruning or 
training ; 

By confining the roots by means of pruning or 
by growing in pots, boxes, or other re- 
stricted place. 

The first category is not a subject for discussion 
in a pruning -book, but it may be said that it is 
not enough that the plant be worked on slow- 
growing root: it must also be systematically 
headed -in if its stature is to be kept within 
bounds. This is true of dwarf pears, dwarf 
apples, dwarf cherries, and all the rest. 

Root -pruning, as a means of limiting growth, 
has already been discussed (page 227). In prac- 
tice, it is nearly unknown in this country. In 
small areas it can be employed, but it is inappli- 
cable to our commercial plantations. 



*A discussion of dwarfs from the breeder's standpoint may be 
found in "Plant-Breeding;" from the propagator's standpoint, in "The 
Nursery-Book;" and from the fruit-grower's standpoint, in "Principles of 
Fruit-Growing." 



PRUNING DWARF TREES 271 

Top -pruning of a dwarf has two objects, — to 
limit the growth, and to train the plant to some 
desired form. Pruning to limit growth is merely 
heading -back. This should be done every winter. 
How much the growth shall be headed -back de- 
pends on its length and the age of the tree. 
Dwarf pears and apples which make an average 
growth of eighteen to thirty inches on their 
uppermost twigs are usually headed -back a half 
to five -sixths of that growth. This cutting- 
back will induce a lateral or interior growth (Sec- 
tion 9, Chap. IV.), and this must be thinned out. 
It is generally best to prune very late in winter 
or early in spring, and to cut to within three- 
eighths inch of a bud (see Figs. 82, 83). 

Pruning to secure some desired shape of the 
top must, of course, be governed by the ideal of 
the operator. There are two general forms to 
which dwarf fruit trees are pruned, — the pyra- 
mid and the inverted cone. The pyramid is 
popular in Europe, and the Old World writings 
contain minute descriptions of the details of 
pruning for this ideal. Fig. 195 shows dwarf 
pear pyramids in the grounds of the Royal Hor- 
ticultural Society, at Chiswick, England. The 
essential feature of this type of training is a 
central shaft from which successive tiers of 
branches are taken. 

The flat -topped or inverted -cone -shaped style 
of training is the commonest ideal in commercial 



272 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



American orchards, although there are few plan- 
tations in which it has been systematically worked 
out. Probably the best example of it in America 
is the orchard of T. G. Yeomans & Sons, Wal- 
worth, New York, an orchard which is still vig- 










^ 






^ 






, > 






!".'/r,j,';t-'' 



A^^&km 



'W:^^"^-^=^ 



^i^^^^^^^r^ 



195. Pyramidal training of dwarf pears. England. 



orous and productive, although it has been com- 
mercially successful for nearly half a century 
(planted in 1852). Good trees from this planta- 
tion are shown in Fig. 196. The essential feature 
of this tj^pe of training — which the writer believes 
to be the best for American conditions — is a 
framework of several approximately coordinate 
branches arising near the ground. 



DWARF PEARS 



273 



Since the Yeomanses have been so successful 
with dwarf pears, it will be profitable to study 
their description of the method of pruning, and 






-A 







^taWi.,-~^^g^=^- • • 



196. Flat-topped training of dwarf pears. New York. 

These trees were forty-five years old when the 

picture was taken. 

especially SO, also, since this account seems to be 
the clearest exposition of dwarf pear pruning 
for commercial orchards which is accessible to 
the American student:* 

"Experience has convinced me that, with good trees of 
well chosen varieties, on any good land, which is never too 
wet, and with the culture a good farmer gives his other 
crops, and the important — nay, more, the indispensable — 
requisite to success, — thorough pruning, — no one need fail 



*This sketch is a copyrighted article published in the nursery circulars 
of T. G. Yeomans & Sons, at the time when the firm was in the nur- 
sery business. Reprinted by permission. 



274 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

of attaining a degree of success highly satisfactory and 
profitable. 

" A dwarf pear tree should never be planted at one year 
old. A good one-year-old tree consists of a single upright 
shoot or stem, from three and one-half to five feet high, 
and should be cut off at about two feet from the ground; 
and in order to give a smooth, handsome stem or trunk, let 
the buds be rubbed off to the height of one foot from the 
ground, leaving on the upper portion six to nine buds, 
more or less. With the tree standing in its original posi- 
tion in full vigor, and cut back as above stated, each one of 
these buds will throw out a good, strong branch, which gives 
a full, round, distaff form to the tree. This is the time and 
manner, and the only time, when that desirable shape can 
be given on which the future form and symmetry and 
beauty depends. To avoid what is termed a crotched or 
forked-top tree, in which the two uppermost branches are 
about of equal vigor and height, let the second branch 
from the top be pinched off when about nine inches or a 
foot long, which will check and weaken it, while the upper- 
most one becomes a strong, central leader. Whereas, if 
the tree be transplanted at one year old, and cut back as 
above stated, the vital forces of the tree will be weakened 
half or three -fourths by transplanting, and as the result, 
only two or three (more or less) of the buds on the trunk 
will grow so as to form branches, and they, perhaps, only at 
the top or all on one side, while the remaining buds remain 
dormant, never afterwards to be developed, as the other 
branches form new channels, which will more readily carry 
the sap to the other and upper portions of the trees. 

"For transplanting, therefore, let a tree be two or more 
years old from the bud, well cut back at one year old, and 
with six to nine main branches, which form the framework 
or foundation, which is to give form and character to the 
future tree, with proper care and management. 

"The annexed cut (Fig. 197) will illustrate a two-year-old 



DWARF PEARS 



275 




tree, as above described, its lower brandies about one foot 
from the ground, its upper branches being the strongest and 
most upright, and those below less vigorous and more hori- 
zontal. I speak of this more 
particularly for the reason 
that all the cuts which I have 
noticed in works on pomology, 
and in agricultural papers 
represent a two -year- old tree, 
with branches much the long- 
est and strongest at the bot- 
tom and diminishing in vigor 
towards the top, except, per- 
haps, the center top branch ; 
while all experience illustrates 
the principle that the sap flows 
most freely and readily to the 
upper branches, giving them 
vigor, strength and upright- 
ness, to the diminution of the 
same characteristics in those 
below. The dotted lines h 
should be cut back at the time of planting. 

"In cutting a tree, with the branches formed as above 
described, let the leader be cut down within four or six 
inches of the place where the one-year-old tree was cut off, 
and just above a good bud on the side of the tree over the 
previous year's cut, thus keeping the leader in a perpen- 
dicular position over the original trunk or bottom of the tree. 

"If the side branches aro too horizontal, upper buds are 
left for their extension; if too upright, lower buds are left. 
Side direction may be given, if desirable, to fill wide spaces, 
in the same way. Cut the other branches at such a distance 
from the trunk that the ends of them will form a pyra- 
mid, the base of which should not be over twelve to sixteen 
inches in diameter, and in smallish trees much less; thus 



197. 


198. 


Treatment of 


Treatment 


two-year-old 


for a three- 


dwarf pear 


year-old 


tree. 


tree. 


die ate where 


the branches 



276 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

the lowest branches will be left the longest, the object of 
which is to cheek the natural flow of sap to the upper 
branches, and induce it to flow more forcibly to the lower 
ones, increasing in vigor and force of the latter as much as 
possible, which must be done at that time or never. 

"The Fig. 198 represents a three -year- old tree, after it 
has been pruned at two years old and made the third years' 
growth, and showing where it should be cut back at that 
time. All subsequent pruning will become easy to any one 
who has attended to these directions thus far — observing 
the same principles — thinning out or cutting back any sec- 
ondary or other branches, as shall seem necessary to admit 
light and air, or give vigor or symmetry of form to the 
tree ; but as the greater force of sap will flow to the central 
and upright branches, they will need to be cut -back most, 
retaining as near as may be the pyramidal form. Pruning 
may be done at any time from November to April." 

These trees, shown in Figs. 197 and 198, start 
out with a pyramidal treatment, but as they ma- 
ture, they approach the form shown in Fig. 196 ; 
and the Yeomans trees are now not over twelve 
feet high, although nearly fifty years old. 

Other illustrations maj^ elucidate some of the 
ways of treating dwarf pears. Fig. 199 is a 
tree at the end of its first season's growth in 
the orchard. The forks near the ends of the 
branches show where it was cut at planting 
time. Fig. 200 shows the waj^ in which it was 
again pruned. 

A dwarf pear three years set is shown in Fig. 
201. The top was started wrong, — with only two 
branches and these in the form of a crotch. 



DWARF PEARS 



277 



When pruned (Fig. 202) two sprouts were left. 
The tree will now have four scaffold branches ; 
but it will never be a model tree. 

A low -branching Duchess dwarf pear is shown 
in Fig. 203. This variety is a narrow and tall 




199. Dwarf pear at end of 
first year in the orchard. 



200. The tree 
pruned. 



grower when young. It has a well-marked leader 
and several scaffold limbs. It is pruned in 
Fig. 204. This will make a good tree. 

The pruning of dwarf apples is essentially 
like that advised for pears. If the tree is on 



278 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



Paradise stock, very close attention must be given 
to pruning, else the top will become too large 
for the root. If it is on the larger -growing 




201. A bad-formed tree. 



202. The tree pruned. 



Doucin stock, a somewhat freer growth may be 
allowed. 

The following remarks on pruning dwarf apples 
are by Lodeman:* 

"Dwarf apple trees should be very thoroughly pruned 
from the time they are set. The object of this pruning is 
three-fold: the wood which is capable of bearing fruit will 



*Dwarf Apples, Bull. 116, Cornell Exp. Station. 



DWARF APPLES 



279 



be more freely produced, the fruit -spurs will be distributed 
evenly over all the lower parts of the tree as well as the 
top, and the tree will be kept in a dwarf habit. These 
results may not be obtained if too little wood is removed. 
Each year's growth, if vigorous, should be cut back at 





203. A Duchess dwarf 
pear, four years set. 



204. The tree 
pruned. 



least one -half or two-thirds, and generally more may be 
removed with perfect safety. Occasionally, dwarf trees 
will be found in which the natural vigor of the cion seems 
to have stimulated an undue growth of roots, so that the 
tree, instead of remaining small, increases rapidly in size, 
and soon it bears little resemblance to the plants fre- 



280 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



queutly illustrated in books to show how a dwarf apple 
tree ought to appear. The annual growths may be from 
one to two feet in length, and at this rate good -sized trees 
are formed in a short time. 

"The tree shown in Fig. 205 represents a good type. 
The original from which the drawing was made was five 




A good dwarf apple tree. 



feet in height, the lowest leaves being but eighteen inches 
from the ground. The top has been allowed to assume 
its natural spreading form, but a firm control has continu- 
ally been exercised over any too ambitious efforts of the 
branches. The tree has practically the same form and 
size which it will retain during its entire existence. The 
main branches will increase in circumference, the outer 



DWARF APPLES 281 

limbs will gradually lengthen, and the fruit-spurs will 
become more crooked, yet the tree will always be low 
and spreading. The one criticism which might be made 
is that the lowest fruiting branches are still too high. The 
foliage of the ideal dwarf apple tree almost touches the 
ground; it has all its main branches well studded with 
smaller ones, or with fruit-spurs, so that when in full 
leaf, it shall appear 'feathered' from bottom to top. ^ * 

"Much wood is allowed to remain near the ground and 
in the center of the tree, for it is always easier to remove 
superfluous branches than it is to insert them when they 
are wanted. The form of the pruned tree is that of a 
rather broad vase, this being the shape which the tree 
naturally assumes. During the coming season, it should 
be well provided with foliage, so that none of the main 
branches shall be exposed to the full glare of the summer 
sun. The fruit produced will also receive proper shade. 
The specimen as a whole may be considered as a good 
type of dwarf apple tree which has not been forced to 
assume a form which is unnatural to it." 

RINGING AND GIRDLING 

Girdling is a generic term used to designate the 
making of a wound completely around a stem. 
A girdle may extend only through the bark, or 
deep into the wood. Ringing is a specific horti- 
cultural term used to designate a girdle which 
extends only through the bark. The wound may 
be a simple incision with the point of a knife, or 
it may be made by the complete removal of a 
section of bark. In horticultural practice, gir- 
dling into the wood is rarely desirable, and we 
shall, therefore, use the word ringing. 



282 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

We have alreadj^ seen the philosophy of ring- 
ing (pages 161, 166). It promotes fruitfulness of 
the part above the rings, because the elaborated 
food is held there, not being able to pass the 
girdle in its downward course. The fattening of 
the top, so to speak, is at the expense of the part 
below the ring. If the bark is not allowed to 
cover the ring, the root must eventually starve, 
unless there is foliage below the ring to support 
it. As a matter of practice, however, the ring is 
made in spring and is allow^ed to heal, and the 
direct effect is, therefore, confined mostly to the 
year in which the ringing is performed. 

Ringing is useful in two ways, — it may set un- 
productive trees into bearing, and it may modify 
the fruit which is borne above the ring. The 
former effect usually does not come until the year 
following the ringing — sometimes not till the sec- 
ond year. The latter effect is immediate. The 
philosophy of the one is that the extra food tends 
to develop fruit -buds ; the philosophy of the other 
is that the extra food hastens the maturity and 
increases the size of the fruit already growing. 

Ringing to induce fruit -bearing is to be re- 
garded as a special practice. It is generally a last 
resort, — not because ringing injures the tree (for 
it usually does not), but because there are more 
fundamental and general means of promoting 
fruitfulness (read pages 163-166). If a tree here 
and there persists in being barren, ring it as an 



RINGING 283 

experiment. If the whole plantation is fruitless, 
and has yet received all the care which legiti- 
mately makes for fruitfulness, then ring all the 
trees ; then if they do not bear, graft them or cut 
them down. Ringing is sometimes done on young 
trees in test plantations to bring them early into 
bearing, but young trees are often seriously in- 
jured thereby. 

Ringing is usually done about the time growth 
begins to start. It is well to experiment on one 
or two branches first. Run the point of a knife- 
blade around the stem, sinking it to the wood. 
This will usually be sufficient; but removing an 
inch of bark at this season of the year usually 
does no harm if the tree is vigorous (see page 116) . 
I have known rings six inches wide, on apple 
trees, to heal perfectly in a single season, with no 
dressings applied; but such wounds are unneces- 
sary and dangerous. 

Ringing to increase the size and hasten the 
maturity of fruits is such a well-known practice 
that reputable societies have long refused to award 
premiums to fruits which have been modified in 
this way.* The quality usually suifers. It is 
customary to make the ring just after the fruit has 
set, so that individual specimens may be selected. 
A strip of bark a quarter of an inch wide is often 
taken out. The part above the ring should bear 



*See, for example, page 203, 4th Ed. " Horticulturist's Rule-Book." 



284 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

an abundance of foliage, else there will be insuf- 
ficient food to support the fruit. 

Gaucher remarks* that "the width of the bark 
to be removed from the whole circumference of the 
shoot or branch varies between three and five milli- 
meters [a millimeter is .039 inch, hence one -tenth 
to two -tenths inch]. Wider than this, the cut 
should not be made, as otherwise it is to be feared 
the wound would remain open all summer and 
bring about the death of the part above the cut." 
"If performed extensively upon a tree," writes 
Lindley,t ringing "is very apt, if not to kill it, 
at least to render it incurably unhealthy; for if 
the rings are not suffiiciently wide to cut oif all 
communication between the upper and lower lips 
of the wound they produce little effect, and if 
they are, they are difficult to heal." 

In 1893 the writer made a symposium! on ring- 
ing grapes, most of which is here reprinted: 

" Grapes can be made to ripen earlier and to grow larger 
if the vine is girdled in early summer. Many fruit-plants 
have been girdled or ringed for centuries, but the utility of 
the practice is still in dispute. A mere narrow girdle or 
incision around the trunk may cause an apple or pear tree 
to come into bearing, and as the wound heals over in a few 
weeks, probably no harm can result. But the section of 
bark removed from the grape vine is so large that the wound 
never heals, and the whole cane is cut away at the annual 
winter pruning. The renewal wood of the vine is not 

*Die Veredelungeu, 364. 

t Theory of Horticulture, Amer. ed. 255. 

^American Gardening, xiv. 74-80. 



RINGING OF GRAPES 285 

ringed, however, and this maintains the growth of the 
plant. But it is a question if this renewal wood is sufficient 
to keep the plant strong and healthy. Grape-ringing is 
practiced by many growers in the Hudson Eiver Valley, and 
mostly with good success so far as the precocity and en- 
largement of grapes is concerned. It is yet a question if it 
is profitable throughout a series of years and with all varie - 
ties of grapes. 

"Girdling or ringing various fruit-trees was certainly 
practiced by the Romans, and the Agricultural Society of 
France awarded a premium to Buchatt about a century and 
a half ago for a method of ringing the grape-vine. The " 
practice, both with grapes and other fruits, has had an in- 
termittent history, and it appears never to have become an 
accepted practice for any number of years. This fact is 
presumption against the operation. But its application to 
the American vine is comparatively recent. The first valu- 
able experiments made with the ringing of the grape vine 
in America were begun in 1877, at the Massachusetts Agri- 
cultural College, and the practice has been employed there 
more or less continuously since that time. A valuable re- 
port was made upon the composition of ringed grapes in 
the report of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture for 
1879. 

"The status of grape-ringing in this country may be 
expressed as follows : Ringing usually hastens maturity 
and increases size of fruit; it is supposed to lessen the 
quality of the fruit ; its effect upon the vine is not clearly 
determined. 

" The quality of the fruit of girdled vines has been made 
the subject of much chemical inquiry at the Massachusetts 
Experiment Station, and as this point is an exceedingly 
important one, and is under much discussion at present, we 
have reproduced Dr. Goessmann's analyses very freely. 
The following table is from Dr. Goessmann's report for 
1889: 



286 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 
Effects of Einging Grapes, 1889, 



Name and Condition. 



Hartford Prolific, not ringed. 

Hartford Prolific, ringed 

Wilder, not ringed 

Wilder, ringed 

Delaware, not ringed , 

Delaware, ringed , 

Agawam, not ringed 

Agawam, ringed 

lona, not ringed 

lona, ringed 

Concord, not ringed 

Concord, ringed 

Concord, not ringed , 

Concord, ringed , 

Concord, not ringed 

Concord, ringed 



Date. 



1877. 
Sept. 3, 
Sept. 3, 
Sept. 3, 
Sept. 3, 
Sept. 4, 
Sept. 4, 
Sept. 4, 
Sept. 4, 
Sept. 6, 
Sept. 6, 
Sept. 6, 
Sept. 6, 
Sept.26, 
Sept.26, 
Oct. 5, 
Oct. 5, 



•si 

p,tu 
02 


as 


C5 




Per et. 


Per ct. 


1.045 


12.85 


8.77 


1.065 


17.18 


12.50 


1.055 


15.41 


10.42 


1.075 


17.24 


14.70 


1.065 


15.75 


11.76 


1.075 


19.14 


15.15 


1.060 


16.60 


11.37 


1.075 


18.45 


16.31 


1.0625 


16.60 


13.51 


1.085 


21.48 


15.63 


1.045 


13.46 


7.46 


1.070 


17.53 


13.88 


1.065 


17.63 


13.70 


1.080 


24.47 


19.61 


1.075 


20.92 


17.50 


1.085 




17.86 






Per ct. 
68.25 
72.76 
67.62 
85.26 
74.66 
79.16 
68.48 
87.42 
68.31 
72.76 
55.42 
79.18 
78.27 
80.13 
85.37 



Date. 



Concord, not ringed 

Concord, ringed 

Concord, not ringed 
Concord, ringed 



1889. 
Sept.23, 
Sept.23, 
Oct. 8, 
Oct. 8, 



100 Parts of Grapes 
contained— 



.42 
.53 
.37 



84.69 
83.00 
84.51 
82.69 



C3 



6.24 
8.13 
6.09 

8.50 



"In 1888, Dr. Jabez Fisher, of Fitehburg, Mass., 'the 
father of grape -growing in northern Massachusetts,' began 
experiments in connection with the Massachusetts College 



RINGING GRAPES 287 

which have extended to the present time, and have given 
invaluable results. The following analyses of grapes, 
which grew from vines girdled by him July 5, were reported 
by Dr. Goessmann in Bulletin 7 of the Massachusetts 
Hatch Experiment Station in 1890 : 

September 20. Ringed. Not ringed. 

Moisture at 100° C 83.00 per ct. 84.69 per ct. 

Ash 42 per ct. . . per ct. 

Sugar 8.13 per ct. 6.24 per ct. 

Soda solution required to neutralize acid 84.4 C.C. 75 C.C. 

October 1. 

Moisture at 100° C 82.69 per ct. 85.51 per ct. 

Ash 37 per ct. .53 per ct. 

Sugar 8.50 per ct. 6.09 per ct. 

Soda solution required to neutralize acid 50 C C. 48 C.C. 

"In every case the amount of sugar was greater in the 
ringed grapes. 

"The experiments at the Massachusetts College were, on 
the whole, satisfactory, and seemed to show that ringing is 
advisable, and that it does not injure the vine ; but Dr. 
Fisher's experiments upon a larger scale, which are detailed 
below, show opposite results." 

Dr. Jabez Fisher on Ringing 

"Knowing that a number of cultivators had girdled their 
grape vines for two or three years with satisfactory results, 
and noting the commendation which began to come from the 
Massachusetts Agricultural College, I determined to ascertain 
how much value there might be in the method. I could find 
no account of any careful experiments directed to this end, 
and having three acres of bearing Concord vines, well sit- 
uated for comparative experimentation, I decided to try 
girdling a few of them. The girdling was done in July, 



288 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

1888, when the berries were about one-fourth of an inch in 
diameter. The girdled fruit showed color August 24, and 
the ungirdled September 2, a difference of nine days. A 
temperature of 29° on the morning of October 1 killed all 
the foliage and froze the ungirdled berries, leaving the 
others untouched, but though the girdled ones were nearly 
ripe, the season was such that the appreciable amount 
of sugar they contained was insufficient to give them 
value for any purpose, and the entire crop was left 
unharvested. 

"In 1889, I girdled, July 2 to 5, one each of two bearing 
arms on sixty vines. This was done by taking out a ring 
of bark from one-half to three-fourths of an inch wide 
around the arm near the trunk. The result of this 
operation was to increase by 30 or 40 per cent the 
size of the berries at maturity, and they showed color 
August 12, while those on the opposite half of the same 
vines began to color August 18, six days later. Sep- 
tember 20, grapes on girdled vines were fit for market, 
while the others became fully ripe October 1, a difference 
of ten days. 

"In order to get a good understanding of these results 
and their value, I made a comparison as the matter then 
stood. I was an earnest inquirer, with little faith, but en- 
tirely open to conviction. I had gained ten days in time, 
which, in an unfavorable season, might mean the difference 
between success and failure. In addition to this gain, the 
berries would weigh from one -fourth to one -third more 
from their increased size, and this, again, would add to 
their attractiveness and thus help their sale. On the other 
hand, the normal amount of rain, 3.35 inches during Sep- 
tember, resulted in splitting open from 20 to 40 per cent 
of the berries, the larger proportion on the heaviest and 
best clusters. This entailed not only the loss of these split 
berries but also the time required in cleaning the clusters 
for market, leaving them deformed and unsightly. The 



THE RINGING OF GRAPES 289 

berries were also soft and did not bear carriage well, and 
as a result nothing was gained in price from their earli- 
ness. There was no opportunity to institute a comparison 
of quality September 20, as at that time those not girdled 
were sour and unpalatable. The girdled ones seemed to 
the anxious waiter to be nearly perfect, but in five or six 
days the not -quite -ripe ungirdled ones were preferred, and 
October 1, when the latter had arrived at perfection, the 
former were left uneaten. These girdled grapes were com- 
paratively . flat, insipid and unsatisfying. They were quite 
as sweet to the taste as the others but lacked their refresh- 
ing sparkle, partly from seeming to be less acid and partly 
from suggestive, incipient decay. This was the case whether 
they had been housed September 20 or left on the vines 
until October 1. 

" These results were unsatisfactory. I repeated the experi- 
ment, using for the purpose the same vines and adding to 
their number. In this I was largely influenced by the con- 
sideration that if we should have a dryer September, the 
objectionable features mentioned would be reduced to a 
minimum. 

"In 1890 I girdled, in all, vines covering nearly an acre. 
They were all Concords, trained on the renewal system, 
each vine having two bearing arms six feet long. These 
arms are fruited but once, and replaced every year by new 
canes grown for the purpose, upon which no fruit is al- 
lowed while growing. Half the vines, those in alternate 
rows, had only one arm girdled. The others were girdled 
on both arms, which comprised all of the bearing wood 
except two, three or four central canes that sprung from 
the trunk bolow the arms. The operation was performed 
July 18 and 19. The girdled grapes showed color August 
17, the ungirdled August 25. Those girdled were first sent 
to market September 22, and the others October 3. Sep- 
tember 22 specimens of each were sent to Dr. C. A. Goess- 
mann, of the Agricultural College at Amherst, Massachu- 



290 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

setts, for analysis, and I give here tlie percentage amounts 
of grape-sugar and tartaric acid respectively : 

Ringed. Not ringed. 

Sugar 9.29 7.36 

Acid (tartaric) 1.17 1.15 

"At this time the girdled grapes were fairly well ripened, 
very nearly as good as they became a week later, and bet 
ter than those gathered October 8. They were sweet, with 
about the right porportion of acid, while those not girdled 
were quite sour and entirely uneatable. October 8, samples 
were gathered of each and again analyzed, with the results 
here given: 

Ringed. Not ringed. 

Sugar 9.12 6.65 

Acid (tartaric) 74 .51 

"At this date the girdled grapes had lost their refreshing 
sparkle, while the others were quite satisfactory, being 
sweet and having sufficient acid; yet the analysis tells us 
that while the former had lost nearly two per cent of sugar, 
together with more than 36 per cent of acid, the latter had 
lost nearly ten per cent of the sugar that they contained 
September 22 when uneatable, but had also lost more than 
55 per cent of their acid. It would appear from these 
analyses that it is not so much the absolute amount of 
sugar present which renders fruit palatable by its sweet- 
ness, as the corresponding absence of an excess of accom- 
panying acid; and that the sense of taste is quite unre- 
liable in judging of the amount of sugar present. 

"The proportionate enlargement of the berries was about 
the same as in 1889, and notwithstanding that more than 
five inches of rain fell between September 6 and 18, yet, 
because of the looseness of the berries on the clusters and 
the fine weather which followed, the girdled crop ripened 
with only a trifling loss by splitting of berries, so that it 
was all marketed by the time that the other grapes were 



RINGING GRAPES 291 

ready to follow. The average price which, the girdled 
grapes sold for during this time was but very little higher 
than that the main crop commanded. Concord here is not 
early enough to compete with grapes raised farther south, 
and it brings quite as good prices later. 

"An important circumstance forced itself upon my atten- 
tion about this time. Upon these vines, half of which 
had been girdled, it was found that the fruit upon the un- 
girdled arm colored and ripened very slowly. It was so 
far behind that [of vines not treated, and so general, that 
the conviction could not be avoided that the girdling of 
one -half of the vine had correspondingly retarded the 
ripening on the other half. So prevalent was this tardiness 
that the crop of the average vine as a whole was less val- 
uable than where girdling was not practiced. A little later 
it was found that upon those vines that had both arms 
girdled, where a few clusters remained upon the central 
shoots not treated, these clusters did not ripen so as to be 
of any value. They remained red and very sour to the 
end. This was the point where light began to show 
through. I had by the operation of girdling been simply 
transferring the nutritive pabulum that would naturally 
have gone equally to all parts of the vine to a portion only. 
The vine possesses in its sap sufficient material, if natur- 
ally elaborated, to ripen its entire crop, but if one part of 
it is caused to receive an excess, there must be a corre- 
sponding deficiency elsewhere. Another idea was suggested: 
whether it were possible for girdled vines to mature and 
ripen their roots so as to be in condition to furnish a crop 
the following year. It might be that as the bearing vine 
was all cut away at the fall pruning, there would be no 
use for the corresponding roots [if there are such!], as they 
would die under any circumstances. The new or renewal 
cane was not girdled, and its particular roots might not be 
affected by the girdling of the other parts of the vine. 

"Having determined that the gain in value of the crop 



292 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

by girdling in my ease was not enhanced, as a whole, in 
any material degree, and being in possession of all the 
conditions for ascertaining the after- effects upon the vine 
and its roots, I decided to continue the operation no fur- 
ther, but to watch the results in the season of 1891. As 
the spring opened there was no noticeable difference in the 
size or appearance of the canes, whatever their previous 
treatment. It was observed that the buds on the vines that 
had been girdled broke quite unevenly, that the clusters of 
fruit -buds were smaller and the early growth of the new 
canes less vigorous than with others. This state of affairs 
was intensified as growth progressed, becoming more and 
more apparent as the season advanced. While all were 
entirely healthy, the vines which had been girdled in 1890 
showed a decided lack of fruit and smaller and weaker 
canes for fruiting in 1892. A favorable autumn made up 
a part of this difference, and at the close of the season all 
the vines looked well and the grapes were thoroughly 
ripened. 

" In harvesting the crop I kept the fruit grown upon three 
different plots separate. No. 1 had never been girdled, 
No. 2 had had one-half of each vine girdled, and No. 3 
both halves. From each plot 120 vines were selected, each 
lot covering about 11,500 feet. All were contiguous and 
fairly comparable with each other. After the leaves had 
fallen, I measured with calipers the diameter of each new 
cane of these 360 vines, 720 canes in all, at half their 
length, three feet, from the trunk. 

"In the first column of the following table, 100 is assumed 
as the product of average ungirdled vines. In the second 
and third columns, the percentages of the half-girdled and 
full-girdled vines, respectively, are given. The difference 
between the whole amount of fruit and that denominated 
first-class consisted of small and fragmentary clusters, 
which could be disposed of only at inferior prices. The 
quality of all the fruit was satisfactory. 



RINGING GRAPES 293 



Total fruit 


Not ringed. 
100 


Half ringed. 
83 

77 
97 


Full ringed. 
62 


First-class 


100 


59 


Diameter of new canes... 


... 100 


87 



" I cannot avoid the conclusion that wherever a grape vine 
will fairly ripen fruit by natural processes, girdling is an 
operation that cannot be commended, certainly not for its 
commercial results. Its disadvantages are greater than its 
advantages. The fruit possesses no attractions for the 
connoisseur, and one year or more must be given the vine 
to recover from its effects. It is possible that in some sit- 
uations or circumstances where the seasons are not long 
enough to ripen the fruit naturally, a crop might be saved 
by girdling if the grower were willing to devote the suc- 
ceeding season to generous feeding, without production of 
fruit, in order to fit the vine for a crop in alternate years. 
I doubt somewhat if even this is feasible, as my vines 
girdled in 1890 have not yet full recovered." 



Binging in the Hudson Eiver Valley 

" For many years, I know not how long, it has been known 
that by obstructing the return flow of sap in the part of a 
grape vine bearing fruit, the size of the fruit would be in- 
creased, and it would color abnormally early. This could 
be attained by removing a ring of bark, or binding the 
branch tightly with a wire. It is only within the last decade 
that this knowledge has been turned to practical account in 
America. Some twelve or fifteen years ago, grape-growers 
in the Hudson Eiver Valley would occasionally exhibit at the 
fairs enormous specimens of grapes. That the vines produc- 
ing them had been girdled was frequently charged, sometimes 
denied ; and if admitted, it was with shamefacedness, and 
the specimens were generally ruled out of the competition. 
A little later a few vines were girdled, and their product 



294 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

put on the market. The practice grew annually, until now 
a large proportion of the vineyardists of the region girdle 
more or less vines. A prejudice against the practice ex- 
isted in the minds of many who had never experimented 
in this line, and it was charged that the fruit of vines 
thus treated was only fit to sell, that the method was de- 
structive to the permanent value of the vines, and was 
fraudulent and ruinous. 

"That some varieties of grapes, when girdled, produce 
much larger fruit more than a week earlier, without ma- 
terially impairing its quality, is a fairly well-established fact. 
About two or three years ago one of the state experiment 
stations is said to have reported [see previous pages] that 
girdling increased the amount of sugar in the fruit, improved 
its quality, increased its size, and hastened its ripening. 
This statement encouraged the practice. 

" That girdling destroys the flavor of some varieties has 
been well shown ; that others when girdled never seem to 
ripen, or in other words remain sour, is also true. ^A 
girdled Catawba rivals a cucumber-pickle for acidity, and a 
Delaware so treated never gets sweet.' Empire State 
loses all character when girdled, while Martha and Wyom- 
ing Eed suffer no loss in quality. Concord and Champion 
are girdled freely without bad effects. Worden and Lady 
sometimes crack badly when girdled ; both are very thin- 
skinned varieties. As a general rule, the more delicate - 
flavored grapes, especially if they contain foreign blood, 
deteriorate most by girdling. 

"The operation is a severe tax on the vine, particularly in 
a dry season. Therefore, over-bearing must not be al- 
lowed. When a vine too heavily loaded is girdled, it will 
stop growing at about the time for the fruit to begin to color, 
and the fruit will not ripen. It is the opinion of a careful 
observer, who has practiced girdling the last five seasons, 
that 25 per cent less fruit should be left on a girdled arm 
than on the same arm if left ungirdled. Some vineyardists 



RINGING GRAPES 295 

girdle the same vine only every other year; others girdle 
two of the four arms grown in the Knif&n system of train- 
ing. All agree that heavy fertilizing is necessary to keep 
up the vigor of girdled vines. All weak- looking vines are 
left ungirdled. 

" The time for girdling is shortly after the fruit is formed, 
and when the young grape is about the size of a pea. It 
is done by removing a ring of bark nearly an inch broad 
from the arm or branch of last year's wood. One or two 
shoots of the present season's growth should be left back of 




206. Grape ringing-knife. 

the girdle for renewal, or for the next season's bearing wood. 
A knife is made specially for this purpose ; its form is shown 
in the illustration (Fig. 206) . It consists of two hooked 
blades, attached to a wooden handle, parallel to each other 
and about seven- eighths of an inch apart. The inner part 
of each blade is filed to a cutting edge. A chisel- shaped 
knife is fastened on the back of the handle. In operation 
the blades are hooked over the vine and the handle passed 
around it, at the same time holding the blades firmly on the 
vine; this will cut two lines seven-eighths of an inch apart 
through the bark. The knife is then lifted from the vine, 
turned over, and with the chisel- shaped part the ring of 
bark is severed and lifted from its place. The whole opera- 
tion is performed in a few seconds. 

"The grapes should be removed from the shoots left grow- 
ing back of the girdle, as it is desirable that these shoots 
should make a vigorous growth of wood for bearing fruit 
the next season. The vine beyond the girdle makes a great 
growth of wood and fruit, and the edge of the girdled spot 
calluses and partly overgrows the naked wood. Shortly 



296 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

after the fruit has been harvested the girdled part is sev- 
ered from the vine for the benefit of next .year's bearing 
wood. 

" Whether girdling grape vines is a profitable operation or 
not can be determined only by a succession of carefully 
conducted experiments. Its real effect on the quality of 




207. The incisions. The bark removed The 
cane in the fall. 

the fruit of those varieties which are best adapted to it is, 
as yet, not fully determined. Whether two vines, with 
precisely the same treatment, except that one is girdled 
annually, will for a series of years show a difference of 
profit in favor of the girdled one, is only a matter of con- 
jecture. The effect of girdling on grape-juice for wine- 
making is also yet to be tested. All these are subjects for 
investigation at our experiment stations. 

"The accompanying picture (Fig. 207) shows the effect of 
girdling in augmenting the size of the cane above the girdle, 
and also the general shape of the wound." — W. D. B., Middle 
Hope, Orange County, N. Y. 

From John Burroughs, Hudson Biver Valley. 

"My opinion of the practice of girdling grape vines is, 
that on the whole, it is poor business. Grape -growers, I 



RINGING GRAPES 297 

fear, are killing the goose that lays the golden egg. If all 
take to girdling, where is the advantage? It is like the 
crowd all getting up on chairs at the show ; what better off 
are they? Girdling hastens the coloring up of most varieties 
of grapes, but hastens the ripening very little, while it dis- 
tinctly injures the quality of certain kinds. Girdled Dela- 
wares are uneatable. People who buy them probably lose 
their appetite for Delawares for some time. They are as 
sour as vinegar. Eed grapes seem to be injured by girdling 
more than black ones. Girdled Niagaras are large and 
pleasing to look upon, but their quality is not equal to the 
ripe ungirdled fruit. Moore Diamond is ruined by girdling. 
Wordens are not increased in size by girdling, but they 
color four or five days earlier. They are, however, much 
more liable to crack, as are all other girdled kinds. Fruit 
on a girdled Moore Early is larger and earlier, and the qual- 
ity is not much injured, but it may crack badly. A vine 
heavily loaded will not ripen its fruit any earlier by being 
girdled. Girdle other kinds if you will, but when you come 
to the Delaware, hands off!" 



PBUNING TOOLS 

It is often said that all pruning should be done 
with a pocket knife, meaning thereby that the 
pruning should receive such constant attention 
that the removal of large branches is unnecessary. 
It is even said that the only safe pruning tool 
is the thumb and finger, which should be used 
to pinch out the objectionable growths as soon 
as they start. Theoretically, these statements may 
be true, but practically they are of little value, 
because it is impossible for any person who has 



298 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



more than a few plants to give such close atten- 
tion to each one, and it is often impossible to 




208. Pruning-knife. 

tell which branches should be removed until 
they have assumed their permanent character- 
istics. 




209. Pruning-shears. 

The most essential pruning tools are three, 
a heavy knife (Fig. 208), hand shears (Figs. 
209, 210), and a narrow saw (as e, Fig. 211). 




210. Pruning-shears. 



Aside from these types, there are various patterns 
of chisels and hooks. 

Various characteristic pruning tools are shown 




211. Various pruning tools. 



300 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

in Fig. 211. Those marked a, d, e are common 
and very useful kinds of saws. Those with 
teeth on both edges have the advantage of keep- 
ing longer in repair and of allowing relatively 
fine and coarse work ; but in crotches the saw 
is likelj^ to injure the limb which it is desired 
to save. A slight curve to the blade (as in a) 
allows the operator to make a very forcible draw 
cut with the concave side. The back- saw, c, is 
very useful for small limbs and for grafting, for 
the stiff back allows the use of a thin plate and 
consequently of small teeth ; and the tool leaves 
a very smooth wound. Its disadvantage is that 
it is too broad to be worked in crotches and 
other crow^ded places. Saw 1) is known as an 
orange -tree pruner. The tool /is one of the 
handiest and most ef&cient of all pruning saws, 
notwithstanding its clumsy appearance. The 
blade turns at both ends, allowing it to be 
used at any angle with reference to the frame 
and adapting it to the most constricted places. 
Tool ^ is a combination of saw and chisel. It 
is mounted on a pole, and the chisel is operated 
with a mallet applied to the end of the handle. 
Tool li is also mounted on a long handle, and is 
a combination of a saw and a shear tool. Long- 
handled tools are of minor value, particularly 
in orchards, for the operator should be very 
close to his work. Thej* are useful in taking 
out limbs here and there and for use on orna- 



PRUNING TOOLS 



301 



mental trees which are difficult to climb. The 
Waters' tree-pruner, — which is very useful for 
heading -in outlying limbs, — works upon the prin- 
ciple of the knife in h, Fig. 211. 
A tool of the same principle, but 
looking upward instead of down- 
ward, is shown in Fig. 212. 

Other shear tools are shown 
in Figs. 209, 210, 213, 214, 215, 
216. An exchange describes the 
tool shown in Fig. 216 as follow^s: 
''Anyone can make pruning shears 
like those here illustrated for his 
own use. The movable shear, 
to which the pitman rod is at- 
tached, does most of the cutting. 
Both shears are made of thin, 
hardened steel. From the bolt- 
hole in the movable shear, a rod 
(the pitman) longer or shorter, to 
correspond with the length of the 
pole used, runs to the lever shown 
at the bottom of the cut. In 
pruning trees and vines, the 
handle of the lever is raised, 
which forces up the bar and 
opens the jaws of the shears.* * 
* * The jaws of the shears *«^i ^^^ heading-in 

. T T . , outstretching limbs 

must be ground at an angle some- ^^^ removing small 
what more acute than that com- branches. 




good 



302 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



monly employed for tailors' shears. The highest 
part of each bevel must come against the bevel 
upon which it acts." 

A pruning chisel is shown at g, Fig. 211. 
Many persons prefer a chisel to all other tools, 
because it allows the operator to stand on the 
ground ; but, as said above, such implements 
have only special uses. A two-inch or three -inch 
carpenter's chisel may be mounted on a stiff pole; 




213. Hedge-shears. 

or a chisel may be made from a large file by 
a local blacksmith, and, in this case, a hook may 
be formed on the side with which to draw the 
brush from the tree. Small branches may be 
severed by means of a simple thrust of the tool, 
and large ones are cut by striking the end of 
the handle with a mallet. Tools of this type are 
on the market. 

Another tool with a chisel -like edge is shown 
in Fig. 217. This is an European tool, and is 
used in pruning forests. Des Cars describes it as 
follows:* "The best tool for the purpose is 



*"A Treatise on Pruning Forest and Ornamental Trees," Amer, 
Ed., 22. 



PRUNING TOOLS 



303 



one which has been used for many years in 
Holland, and which has lately been improved 
by Courval (Fig. 217). It weighs 2 lbs. 12 oz., 
to 3 lbs. 6 oz., or more, according to the strength 
of the workman [and is sixteen inches long] . 
The blade is reinforced in the middle to increase 
its strength and concentrate the weight. In the 
north of France this tool is 
generally hung to an iron 
hook attached to a leather 
strap buckled round the 
workman's waist, who is thus 
left perfectly free in his 
movements." 

Another European device is 
the dendroscope (Fig. 218). 
This is used when it is de- 
sired to reduce the top of a 
large tree to a given form. 
A figure of the desired form 
is cut in a piece of card- 
board, and a thread or wire 
is stretched across the open- 
ing from top to bottom. The 
operator holds the card be- 
fore his eye, bringing the 
wire against the center of 
the trunk, and walks towards the tree until 
the bottom of the opening strikes the ground 
line. He can then make a mental note of 




214. Two-hand 
pruning shears. 



304 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



the places to cut the branches in order to pro- 
duce the desired outline. 

For removing the canes from bush -fruits (as 
raspberries, gooseberries), roses and other shrubs, 




215. Powerful pruninjEj shears. (The Myti- 
cuttah, an English implement.) 



various hooks and spuds are useful. Three styles 
of these are shown in Figs. 219, 220, 221. 

There are also manj' devices for cutting the 
runners from strawberry plants, one thrust of 
the implement leaving the hill in proper size and 
shape. One of these is represented in Fig. 222, 





217. 

Forest-tree 

pruner. 




216. Home-made shears. 



218. Dendroscope. 






219 Bush hook. 



220. Bramble hook. 221. Bush spud. 



306 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



and is described as follows:* "E. W. Reid de- 
scribed an implement for trimming strawberry 
plants in hills, which is mnch used in eastern 
Ohio. It consists of a piece of heavy sheet -iron 
about twenty -eight to thirty inches long and six 
incl^s wide, the ends riveted to form a cylinder 
about nine inches in diameter and six inches long. 



G^=CpSD 



Attached to one end of 
the cylinder, and on op- 
posite sides, are two 
pieces of strap -iron 
which extend about six 
inches beyond the end 
of the cylinder and 
join on the line of the 
axis to a handle of 
wrought - iron with a 
wooden cross-piece at 
the top, to be grasped 
using the implement. 
The distance from the lower 
edge of the cylinder to the 
top of the handle should be 
about three feet four inches, 
so that the workman will not 
have to stoop in using it. 
Instead of a cross-bar the 
handle shown at the right may be used. With 





m 



Strawberry 
pruner. 



*W. S. Devol, reporting meeting of O. Hort. Soc. in American Garden, 
xii., 175. 



PRUNING TOOLS 



307 




223. Pruning 
niask. 



this it is easier to direct the blows, and the use of 
the implement is less tiresome, because the posi- 
tion of the hands can be changed. The projecting 
handle should be about the same distance above 
the cutting cylinder as the cross- 
bars, and the perpendicular pro- 
jection should reach twelve or fif- 
teen inches higher. The edge of 
the implement should be kept y 
very sharp, to prevent pulling 
and disturbing the plants when 
using it. By walking between 
two rows and setting the imple- 
ment down over two hills on 
one side, and then two on the other, the runners 
can be trimmed off very rapidly, and the plants 
be kept in neat, round hills. The implement ap- 
pears to be a valuable thing for facilitating 
the work of the strawberry grower.'' 

A recent writer describes the following mask 
(Fig. 223) to protect the face while pruning:* "I 
am pruning, and for the past few years have 
found great comfort in a mask over the face to 
keep ofe the sun and wind. It often makes the 
difference between 'l)eing able to stay at work or 
not during some days at this time of year. I 
wear spectacles, and to prevent the breath freez- 
ing on them, use a stiflfish wire hooked behind 



*C. T., in The Rural New-Yorker, March 20, 1897. 



308 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

each ear and bent around close to the face, just 
clearing the eyes, and over the nose like a spec- 
tacle frame ; on this is run a thick piece of cotton, 
covering the nose and face to the beard, and 
short enough not to catch the breath. A rather 
loose tape from the corners under the chin keeps 
the wind from getting under, and turning it up 
over the eyes." 

Balmer describes* the following device in which 
to burn the prunings : "A matter in connection 
with pruning, and one which should always have 
the closest attention, is that of gathering up the 
prunings. These are oftentimes the harbor of 
aphis eggs, and the eggs of other injurious in- 
sects, and if left lying on the ground too long 
these eggs may hatch and do a great amount of 
damage. Our practice is to rake up the prunings 
into bunches and load them into a wagon, to be 
hauled away and burned. In parts of California 
where they have very large orchards, a kind of 
portable furnace is used ; this is a large sheet- 
iron receptacle mounted on four wheels, with an 
iron frame. In the center of the iron trough is a 
grate. On this a fire is lighted, and the prunings, 
having been previously raked with a horse -rake 
into rows, are loaded on to this fire. A horse is 
hitched to this portable furnace, and the whole 
orchard gone over, the fire being kept up all the 



*Bull. 25, Wash. Exp. Sta. 



TRUNING APPLE TREES 309 

while. This is said to work well in vineyards, 
but may be too cumbersome for our Washington 
orchards. At all events, see to it that the prun- 
ings are burned and the ashes returned to the 
orchard." 

BEMABKS ON SPECIFIC PLANTS 

Apple 

The apple tree is a vigorous plant, and should 
be pruned every year. In very cold climates, — 
as in northern New England, Wisconsin, Minne- 
sota, — it is generally considered to be advisable to 
delay the pruning until the cold weather is past 
(pages 143, 184), but in other regions pruning in 
late winter is the rule. Yet the apple tree, like 
other fruits, may be pruned in early spring or 
summer. The average height at which the limbs 
of apple trees are started is about four feet from 
the ground ; but the height must be governed by 
climate, variety, and the personal ideals of the 
grower. From three to five limbs should form 
the scaffold of the top. When the general form 
of the top lias been well established, — by three 
or four years of thoughtful attention, — the sub- 
sequent pruning consists mostly in removing all 
superfluous limbs in the center of the top, — that 
is, those which run crosswise the top, which rub 
other limbs, or which tend to make certain parts 
of the top too thick. Avoid pruning all the side 



310 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

branches oif the main limbs, else these limbs will 
become too long and pole -like. There are no 
particular precautions to be observed in the prun- 
ing of an apple tree. For spurs and buds, see 
Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 
18, 41, 62, 63. For trees, see Figs. 123, 126, 127, 
133, 134, 145, 146, 147, 154, 155, 156, 161, 162, 
163, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 
176, 177, 178, 189, 190, 205 (dwarf). 

Apricot 

The apricot is treated in essentially the same 
way as the plum (which see) ; but since some 
of its fruit is borne on the last year's shoots, 
heading -in may thin the fruit. For spurs and 
buds, see Figs. 38, 39, 40, 42, 57, 58. For trees, 
see Figs, 182, 183. 

The following directions for the pruning of 
apricots in California are by J. B. Neff,* and 
they may be applied — with minor modifications — 
to other stone fruits and to other regions: 

"Trees of four to five feet in height are preferable for 
planting, and when planted should be trimmed to a single 
stem and cut off at eighteen inches from the ground. 
These will throw out shoots vigorously and frequently two 
or three shoots from one bud. These shoots should be 
thinned out, leaving not more than four or five, no two 
of which should come from one bud, nor be directly oppo- 
site. The first shoot should start twelve inches from the 



*Before Farmers' Institute, Anaheim, Cal., Apr. 9, 1897. 



PRUNING THE APRICOT 311 

ground, the others in such a manner as to divide the space 
and make the branches balance, leaving the top shoot to 
form the central part of the tree. It will be necessary to 
go over the trees several times the first year to remove 
shoots that may start where not wanted, but no general 
heading-back should be done, as it tends to dwarf the 
tree; though if some of the limbs are making an over- 
growth they should be pinched -back to keep the head 
balanced. 

"The pruning for the second year should be done in 
January, as the tree will not be dormant until then, if it 
has been kept in a thrifty condition. The first year's 
growth should be cut back to within five to ten inches of 
the body of the tree, and all forks should be cut out, even 
if it necessitates forming a new head, as it is much better 
to lose some growth on a young tree than to take the risk 
of splitting down when the tree begins to bear fruit. 

"When the shoots start for the second year's growth, 
take off all that come on the under side of the limbs and 
thin to one, two or three, as may be needed to balance 
the tree, bearing in mind that an apricot tree always 
inclines toward the coast breezes in this locality. The 
second year will require much more attention than the first 
year, in order to keep off suckers and all lateral growth 
that may start on the under side of the new limbs, the 
object being to make the limbs grow as near upright as 
possible. The remark on heading-back holds good for the 
second year also. 

"The trees will become dormant earlier the second year 
than they did the first, but should not be trimmed earlier 
than December and a month later is preferable, as the 
ends of the limbs are not exposed to the drying winds so 
long before the sap begins to flow and consequently will 
heal over better. The second year's growth should now 
be cut back to within fifteen to twenty inches of the old 
wood, except the central stem, which may be left twenty- 



312 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

four to thirty inches long, depending on the number of 
laterals it may have thrown out. 

"When the new shoots start they should again be 
thinned down to two or three on each limb and all taken 
off that tend to turn down or out at right angles. The 
trees will need to be gone over about three times before 
July, to remove suckers and lateral growth that may start 
on the lower side of the limbs, as the tendency in the 
third year is to make an immense growth of downward 
laterals, and these must be taken off so as to develop 
wood that is to be left for fruit. If the orchard is on 
good land and has been properly irrigated and cultivated, 
the trees should now be large enough to begin to yield 
fruit. 

"The object in trimming during the first two years and 
the first half of the third year has been to grow a vig- 
orous, upright tree with strong limbs, capable of carrying 
a heavy load of large fruit, and to get the fruit as close 
to the body of the tree as possible. 

"There will be a few specimens of fruit the third year, 
and as soon as these are gathered the trees should be 
summer pruned for the first time, care being taken that 
the land shall have been allowed to become moderately 
dry, so that the trees may be partially dormant. If the 
downward growth of the laterals has been kept cut off, 
all that remains to be done is to cut off about one- 
half of all this season's growth all over the tree, using 
the same judgment as before with reference to prevail- 
ing winds and symmetry of tree. If this is properly 
done and water at once turned on the orchard, a new 
growth will be made and the fruit buds for next year 
fully developed. 

"The only pruning necessary in the following winter 
will be to take out any cross limbs and sprouts that may 
have been overlooked in the summer. 

"After the trees begin to produce regular crops they 



PRUNING APRICOT AND CHERRY 313 

will not grow so vigorously, and the numerous prunings 
of the first three years will not be necessary, as almost 
all can be done by summer pruning until the trees get 
so old that they need the old wood taken out. This can 
be more readily done without damage to the trees where 
from twenty -four to thirty limbs are grown, than in the 
old method of leaving only eight or ten large limbs. 
When it becomes necessary to take out old wood— as the 
best fruit" grows on new wood— a few limbs can be taken 
out each year until a full top of new wood is again made." 

Cherry 

Eemarks on plum and apricot will apply to 
cherry. For spurs and buds, see Figs. 31, 32, 33. 
For trees, see Figs. 3, 4, 179, 180, 181, 188. 

Of the pruning of the sweet cherry, Powell 
writes as follows:* 

" The cherry orchard will require little pruning after the 
first two or three years, and before that time the tree can be 
made to assume any desired form. I believe, however, that 
in general the pruning should be such as to give the tree a 
low, spreading head, with a trunk about four feet high, and 
with the top built out on three to five main arms. We have 
pursued this method on the Windsor and other varieties, and 
the trees, instead of growing in the usual spire-shape, 
assume an apple-tree form. After the first two or three 
years no pruning is needed, except to remove dead branches, 
and to keep superfiuous branches from intercrossing. The 
advantages gained from this form of tree are of great im- 
portance. First, the body of the cherry tree is less likely to 
be injured from the hot sun, which causes it, especially on 
the side of the prevailing wind, to crack and split, exude 



*Gr. H. Powell, Bull. 98, Cornell Exp. Sta. 



314 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

sap, and finally to die. The low, spreading head shades the 
trunk and large branches, and obviates this difficulty to a 
great extent. In western New York this trouble is not so 
serious as it is on the black lands farther west. A second 
advantage, of equal or greater importance, lies in the fact 
that, if allowed to grow upright, the limbs reach the height 
of thirty to forty feet in twenty -five years, making it very 
difficult to gather the fruit and to spray the trees. The 
bearing branches are always found towards the extremities 
of the limbs, and the time which men lose in going up and 
down long ladders is of no small account to the fruit- 
grower." 

Orange 

"The best form of tree is a low-headed, com- 
pact growth. It is secured by trimming the 
young tree, at transplanting, to a straight shoot 
of four to six feet in height, and tying it to a 
stake to give it support and straightness. All 
shoots from above the bud are permitted to grow 
to shade the trunk and to stiffen it, though a too 
strong lateral may be pinched. The trunk must 
be protected from the sun by wrapping with paper 
or something of the kind, until the leaves do that 
service. The lower branches will bear the first 
fruit, and as the tree attains age, they will stop 
growing and can be removed. Thus the head of 
the tree is raised gradually, and space is given for 
the drooping of the higher branches. In the top 
of the tree, too, the rule for pruning should be to 
remove the weaker branches which seem to have 
outlived their usefulness, and thus give more 



PRUNING ORANGE AND PEACH 315 

room for the vigorous ones. High heading is 
practiced by some growers. It is open to the 
general objection to high heading (see discussions 
on pages 193-203, and page 216). The natural 
form of the orange tree is undoubtedly superior 
so long as the tree is not persecuted by pests, 
and is in a situation where natural conditions 
favor it. When it is beset by evils its treatment 
may have to be changed to aid in conquering 

them."* 

For discussion of the treatments to be given 
frozen orange trees, see pages 146-149. 



Peach 

The peach usually bears on the shoots of the 
previous year; therefore, heading -in thins the 
fruit. Heading -in also induces a growth of new 
shoots, and thereby increases the fruit -bearing 
wood. Heading-in is also advantageous in re- 
moving winter -injured twigs. Notwithstanding 
these advantages, heading-in of the peach is a 
question of local application and of training the 
top to some given form. It is more generally 
practiced on heavy lands— on which the trees grow 
exuberantly— than on sandy lands. The writer 
believes that heading-in is less essential to peach - 
growing in North America than the literature of 



*Wicksoii, "California Fruits," 449. 



316 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

the subject would lead us to believe. In the 
commercial peach regions, trees are rarely headed- 
in, at least not after they begin to bear. If 
heading -in is not practiced, the chief attention 
to be given the tree — after the general frame- 
work of the top is formed — is to trim out the 
weak and dead interior wood by means of hand- 
shears. This fine wood dies or becomes weak 
after bearing, and should be removed. For buds 
and twigs, see Figs. 34, 35, 36, 37. For trees, see 
Figs. 124, 128, 129, 143, 150, 151, 152, 163, 164, 
184, 185, 186, 187. 

The general form of the top for a peach tree 
has already been discussed (Fig. 124, pages 261, 
262). The following remarks by J. H. Hale 
will still further elucidate the subject: 

"Young peach trees allowed to grow at will all the first 
season after setting should have their three or four leading 
branches make a growth of from two and a half to four 
feet each. Fall and early winter pruning has not been 
satisfactory with us, and therefore all pruning is delayed 
until late winter or early spring. In the earlier days it 
was my custom, in trimming trees one year planted, to 
cut branches back to within twelve or fifteen inches of the 
main stem ; but as this tends to form rather a too close 
head for the foundation year, I now prefer to leave the 
first season's growth two and a half to three feet long, 
and to reserve the severe shortening-in for the second, 
third and fourth years, particularly the second and third 
years. Besides the main branches to be cut away the first 
year, it will be necessary to cut off some lateral branches 
entirely and to shorten others somewhat. With liberal 



PRUNING THE PEACH 317 

culture and manuring, each of the three or four main 
branches will, in the second year, throw out from their 
tips two or three leaders, each of which should make a 
growth of three to four feet. Early in the spring follow- 
ing pruning should begin, with the object of building a 
broad, low, open-headed tree. This is best accomplished 
by first thinning out all crowding inside branches and 
leaders, and shortening-in all others from one-half to 
three -fourths of the new year's growth, the closest cutting 
being in the central top. The third year's work should be 
on the same general plan ; and it will often be found, unless 
the second year's work was exceedingly well done, that 
some of the third year's work ought to have been done then. 
The object of the first three years' pruning is to establish a 
well-formed tree best suited to forcing the greatest amount 
of fruit to the highest perfection at the least possible cost. 
"After the right sort of tree has been established and 
trees have reached a bearing age, pruning for a year or two 
may be continued, partially on the line of a correct tree 
form, but more particularly as relating to fruit production. 
And so right here we abandon late winter and early spring 
pruning, and do most of the work after the fruit-buds begin 
to swell, so that we can judge on inspection which are alive 
and which are dead. In years when very few buds have 
survived the frosts of winter, pruning should be done with 
the object of retaining a great majority of the living buds, 
regardless of tree form, which can be somewhat righted the 
next year. Of course, in years when a good number of 
buds are found alive, pruning can be continued for form, 
but as the tree grows older, less and less pruning will be 
required. The methods here described have in their early 
years given handsome, even-headed, well-rounded trees, 
which have been exceedingly profitable, although in later 
years they have become less shapely. As it is results — 
fruit results and dollar results — that count in commercial 
peach culture, we judge the method to be a decided success, 



318 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

at least for sections where winter-killing of fruit-buds is the 
greatest drawback to success, and we shall follow it closely 
till some better plan presents itself. There should be no off- 
year with peaches, except when fruit or blossom buds are 
entirely killed by frosts. Eight culture, proper feeding and 
pruning should each year stimulate enough new growth to 
furnish far more buds than are required for abundant 
crops." 

Another view of peach-tree pruning may be 
presented : * 

" The methods of pruning peach trees are the occasion of 
much discussion among pomologists. The differences of 
opinion turn chiefly about three practices, — short trunks 
with rapidly ascending branches, high trunks with more 
horizontal branches, and shortening-in or heading-back the 
annual growth. Each of these three methods of handling 
or training peach trees has ardent advocates and pronounced 
opponents. It is probable that each system has distinct 
merits for particular cases. I believe that the nature and 
fertility of the soil are the dominating factors in these op- 
posing methods. A system of pruning which fits the slow 
growth and hard wood of sandy soils may not be adapted 
to the rapid growth and heavier tops of trees on strong soils. 
Fig. 124 shows what I believe to be, in general, the best 
method of pruning peach trees upon sandy or what may be 
called peach soils. It is the natural method. The tree is 
allowed to spread its top at will with no heading -in. The 
foliage is comparatively light, and does not place great 
weight upon the branches, and the trees, upon such lands, 
do not grow quickly to such great size as upon heavy lands. 
This method of allowing a tree to make its natural top is 
the common one in the Chesapeake peninsula and in the 



*L. H. Bailey, Bull. 74, Cornell Exp. Sta. 



PRUNING PEACH AND PEAR 319 

Michigan peach belt. It will be observed, also, that the 
picture to which I have referred shows a tree with short 
trunk and forking branches. It is a prevalent opinion in 
many places that such trees are more likely to split down 
with loads of fruit than those which have more horizontal 
branches, but I think this to be an error. Of course, some 
care should be exercised to see that the branches do not 
start off from the trunk at exactly the same height, thus 
making a true fork or Y. With this precaution, the crotchy 
trees are no more likely to split than the others, while they 
allow of a much better form of top, unless the tree is to be 
headed-in. * * * 

''Yet there is much to be said, fairly, for the high-topped 
trees. They are more easy to till, and it is quite as easy to 
pick their fruit ; and there is less tendency to make long 
and sprawling branches as a result of careless pruning. On 
rich lands, it is perhaps the better method. And here is 
the chief reason for heading-back in this climate,— the 
necessity of checking the growth and keeping the tree within 
bounds when it is growing in a strong soil. Whether one 
shall head -in his trees or not, therefore, must depend en- 
tirely on circumstances." 

Pear 

Pear trees are generally started lower than 
apple trees. This is because the top tends to 
grow more upright, and therefore to be out of 
the way, and because the trunk is very liable to 
be injured by sun -scald. Three to four feet is 
the usual height of pear trunks in the East. 
The top should be thinned out every spring 
(preferably before the leaves start); but heavy 
pruning should always be avoided, because it 



320 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

causes a quick growth, and thereby exposes the 
tree to danger from fire -blight. Removing the 
fruit -spurs,— which are very prominent in the 
pear, persisting for several or many years, — is a 
direct and economical means of thinning the 
fruit. It is well to keep all spurs and sprouts 
off the trunk and the lower parts of the main 
limbs, for if blight attacks these shoots the dis- 
ease is apt to run down into the trunk and cause 
irreparable damage. For spurs and buds, see 
Figs. 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 55, 56, 
59, 60, 61, 117, 118. For pictures of trees, see 
Figs. 116, 130, 131, 141, 142, 148, 149, 165, 191, 
192; for dwarfs. 111, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 
200, 201, 202, 203, 204. For treatment of body- 
blight, consult Fig. 101. 

Plum 

In the East, most plum -growers prefer to start 
the top about three or three and a -half feet from 
the ground. If the top is to be sheared -in, it 
may be started somewhat higher. Figs. 120 and 
121 should be contrasted with Fig. 122, as show- 
ing typical examples of headed -in and free -grow- 
ing trees. The fruit is borne mostly on spurs, 
and simple heading -in is not' a means of thin- 
ning. The Japanese and native varieties, how- 
ever, often bear on the last year's shoots (Fig. 
224). Trees bear as well if not headed-in a§ 



PRUNING THE PLUM 



321 



they do when they are headed -in. The practice 
of heading -in is therefore not fundamental, but 
is to be determined by the grower's ideals, the 



12 3 4 

Fig. 224. Buds on the new growth of plums. 1, domestica (Coe 
Golden Drop), leaf -buds only. The others have lateral fruit- 
buds : 2, Japanese (Burbank) ; 3, Japanese (Kerr) ; 4, Native 
(Wild Goose). 

rapidity of growth, distance apart of the trees, 
and the like. For buds and spurs, see Figs. 
28, 29, 30, and compare Fig. 224. For trees, see 
Figs. 120, 121, 122, 132, 166, 193. See Apricot 
(page 310). 
u 



322 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



Quince 

Quince trees should be headed very low. Fig. 

225 shows what may be considered to be model 

commercial trees. Some people grow them to 

bush form, but a distinct short trunk is generally 



k 







225. New York quince trees. 



to be preferred. The interior growth is thinned 
out each winter or spring, and if the growth is 
very heavy — say eighteen to thirty inches on 
bearing trees — it may be headed -back. Heading- 
in thins the fruit, since the flowers are co- ter- 
minal ; but cutting off all the tips generally re- 
moves too much of the fruit. For twigs and 
buds, see Figs. 47, 48. 



PRUNING BRAMBLES 323 

Blackberries and Raspberries 

Blackberries, raspberries and dewberries bear 
on canes which grew the preceding year, and, 
having borne once, these canes become worthless 
(read page 64). Pruning of these fruits consists 
(1) in removing superfluous shoots from the base 
of the plant, so that too many canes shall not 
form (five or six to a plant usually being suffi- 
cient) ; (2) in heading -back the shoots when 
they reach the desired height, causing them to 
throw out laterals and to become stocky ; (3) 
heading -back these laterals (usually done the 
next spring, before growth starts) ; (4) cutting 
out the canes after they have borne (usually done 
the following winter or spring, but should be 
done, in general, soon after the fruit is off) . 

Of blackberries, the growing canes should be headed- in, 
— two to four inches of the tips cut off, — when they are 
from two and a -half to three feet high. It will be neces- 
sary to go over the plantation three or four times for this 
purpose, as the different canes reach the desired height 
at different times. Laterals will now push out vigorously, 
but these are allowed to grow their full length. Early 
the following spring, these laterals are shortened. There 
is no rule respecting the proper length to leave these 
laterals. Sometimes they are injured by the winter, and 
must be cut-in short. And there is great difference in 
varieties in the way in which they bear their fruit; some 
kinds, like Wilson Early, bear the fruit close to the cane, 
while others, like Snyder and Early Harvest, should be 
cut longer. Some varieties are variable in their habit of 



324 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



bearing fruit, and on such kinds some growers prefer to 
delay the pruning of laterals until the blossoms appear. 
From twelve to twenty inches is the length at which the 
laterals are generally left. It must be remembered that 
these laterals are to bear most of the fruit; hence it is 
important that they make a good growth, become well 
matured", and that the grower familiarize himself with 
the habits of different varieties. It is generally important 





226. Trellis for berries. 



227. Rack for blackberries. 



that the heading-in of the main cane be done early, so 
that the laterals may make an early and hard growth, 
and that they may start rather low down on the cane, 
and thereby prevent the cane from tipping over with its 
load of fruit. Blackberry bushes which are managed as 
here outlined will stand alone, without stakes or trel- 
lises. The bushes are sometimes kept from lopping by 
stretching a single wire along either side of the row, 
securing it to stakes which stand two or three feet high 
(Fig. 226). Individual bushes may be suppoi'ted by a rack, 
as suggested in Fig. 227. In some places, particularly 
along the Hudson, blackberries are trained on wires, after 



PRUNING BLACKBERRIES 



325 



the manner of grapes. A blackberry trellis is shown in 
Fig. 228. The two-wire trellis is generally preferred. The 
young canes are headed -in just above the upper wire, 
and they are gathered in bunches in the hand and tied 
to the upper wire, where they will least interfere with the 
ripening fruit. These canes may remain on the wires 

/I 




228. Blackberries on a trellis. 

all winter, or they may be laid down for protection. Early 
the following spring, they are tied securely to both wires. 
This makes, therefore, one summer tying for the young 
canes, and one spring tying for the bearing canes. Black- 
berries may also be tied to single stakes, although the 
practice is scarcely advisable, because the fruit is apt to 
become too much massed in the foliage. 

An exchange writes as follows on supports for berry 
bushes: ''Wire is very commonly used as a support for 
raspberry and blackberry bushes, this being stretched 



326 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 




Fig. 229. A handy wire 
support. 



tightly along stout stakes, the end stakes being of neces- 
sity very stout and very firmly braced. But this does 
not suffice to keep the wire stiffly in place. Where wires 
are stretched along each side of a row already, they 
can be made much more efficient by tying them together 
with cross wires every ten feet or so. This pulls them 

together and keeps the bushes 
upright and in place. Where 
there is no support at pres- 
ent, and support is to be given 
the bushes, the plan shown 
in the diagram (Fig. 229) 
can be followed to advantage. 
Light wooden strips of ineh- 
square stuff are held up by 
stakes of the same material and rigidly attached to each 
other by cross wires. These cross wires are the most 
important part of the whole, for they are constantly 
pulling the bushes up into close quarters,— the one thing 
for which supports are desired." 

. Black raspberries, or black-caps, are usually headed-in 
when from one and one-half to two feet high. It is im- 
portant that this heading-back be done as soon as the canes 
reach the desired height, for the laterals then start low, and 
the bush becomes stout and self-supporting. The following 
spring the laterals are cut back to twelve to eighteen inches, 
as blackberries are. Black raspberries are sometimes sup- 
ported by wires (Fig. 226) , but best results are usually ob- 
tained when the plants are made to stand alone. 

Red raspberries are seldom headed-in during the growing 
season, but otherwise they are treated like black-caps. Fig. 
230 shows a cane (of Cuthbert) well pruned, but the canes 
in Fig. 231 are pruned too high and are top-heavy. Well- 
pruned black -caps and blackberries have essentially the 
form of Fig. 230. 

The canes of dewberries are tied to stakes, disposed on 



CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES 



327 



trellises (as on Fig. 229), or tied to wire screen (Fig. 232). 
The best method, probably, is to tie to stakes, allowing 
three to six canes to each stake (Fig. 233). 



Currants and Gooseberries 

The canes of currants and gooseberries bear 
several times, but the first two or three crops are 




230. Well pruned 



231. Poorly pruned. 



the best. It is therefore desirable, after the 
plants have come into bearing, to cut out one or 
more of the oldest canes each year, and to en- 
courage as many new ones. The bush is, there- 
fore, constantly renewed. If the old canes are 
allowed to remain, the fruit becomes small, the 



328 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



bushes get too tall, and the currant borer is en- 
couraged. In Fig. 234, the old branching cane 

a should be removed. At 
its left, two vigorous canes 
— one two seasons old and 
the other one season old — 
are ready to take its place. 
When bushes make very 
strong and tall growths, 
the canes may be headed- 
back. For spurs and 
buds, see Figs. 43, 44 

The following advice is 
by Beach:* 




"la large plantations it has 
been found most satisfactory 
to permit currants to grow in 
bush form rather than in the 
tree form, as the old canes 
may then be removed when they 
become unproductive, as they 
do after a few years, and their 
places may be taken by new 
canes that have been permitted 
to grow for this purpose. Then 
too, if the trunk of a currant 
in tree form is broken off or 
injured in any way, a new 
plant must be set in its place, 
but when several canes are permitted to grow, as is the 
case when the plants are grown in bush form, the acci- 



232. Dewberries on 
wire screen. 



*Bull. 95, N. Y. State Exp. Sta. 



PRUNING CURRANTS 



329 



dental breaking of a trunk does not cause the death, of the 
whole plant, but its place is readily filled by permitting 
other canes to grow from the root. The tree form is well 
adapted to well -cultivated gardens, as the plants may be 







233. Dewberries on stakes. A model treatment. 



pruned into more symmetrical, attractive shape as trees 
than as bushes. To grow currants in tree form it is simply 
necessary to remove all buds from the part of the cutting or 
layer that is put in the ground. This prevents the growth 
of shoots from below the surface of the soil, and conse- 



330 



SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 



quently no suckers are formed. The tree currants may be 
kept in symmetrical shape by annually cutting-back the 
shoots of new wood, leaving but two or three buds to the 
shoot. This may be done at any convenient time while the 
leaves are off. 

"No definite rule can be given for pruning currants grown 
in bush form, for the kind and amount of pruning necessary 
is in each case determined by the condition and individual 







^;f 













234. Illustrating the pruning of a currant hush. 



habits of growth of the bush to be pruned. In general, it 
may be said that during the first two or three years the 
bushes require but little pruning except to head-back the 
new shoots so that fruit- spurs will develop all along the 
cane. Otherwise the fruit-bearing branches and fruit-spurs 
will be found mostly near the top of a long cane. When 
this is permitted, especially with some varieties, such as Fay, 
for example, the weight of the fruit is quite apt to bend the 
canes nearly or quite to the ground. Besides this heading- 
in to keep the bushes in shape, the pruning consists of re- 



PRUNING GOOSEBERRIES 331 

moving the broken branches, or those that droop too closely 
to the ground, and removing the old wood after it has 
passed the age of greatest productiveness." 

For gooseberries, Beach writes as follows:* 

"English writers usually recommend that gooseberries 
be trained in tree form; that is, with a single main stem 
for each plant, and that method is largely followed in 
the old country. On account of their neat, symmetrical 
appearance, such plants are well adapted to well-culti- 
vated gardens. * * * a bush grown in this form does 
not produce suckers, and if it is broken off accidentally 
it cannot be renewed by letting new sprouts grow, but 
must be removed and a new plant set in its place. After 
they have borne five or six good crops it is generally 
best to replace them with new bushes, for they gradually 
become less productive than plants which are grown in 
the bush form, because the latter may be renewed from 
suckers whenever it is thought desirable to do so. To 
grow bushes in tree form, it is simply necessary to remove 
all buds or eyes from the portion of the cutting or layer 
which is covered with earth in planting. No underground 
shoots, or suckers, will then be formed, and the plant 
will have but one main stem or trunk. By annually cut- 
ting back new shoots to about three eyes, and removing 
all weak or crowded branches, the tree form may easily 
be kept in symmetrical shape. 

"For general purposes it is best to set plants that will 
send up suckers. The older canes, which have passed 
their period of highest productiveness, may then be removed 
annually, and their places taken by young, vigorous ones 
which have been allowed to grow for this purpose. By 
this method of renewal, the skillful grower may keep 



*Bull. 114, N. Y. State Exp. Sta. 



332 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

his plantation in a high state of productiveness for an 
indefinite period. Including the young canes which are 
to be used for renewal, as above suggested, there will 
usually be five or six canes to a bush, or even a greater 
number than this with varieties of the American class, 
which have more slender canes. 

"Gooseberries generally require little pruning during 
the first two or three years after they are planted except 
to clip a few inches off from the strong new shoots and 
a less amount from the less vigorous ones. This may 
be done at any time after the leaves fall. The object is 
to favor the development of the fruit -spurs all along 
the cane. If it is not done the strong buds at or near 
the end of the cane will start into such vigorous growth 
in spring that the lower buds will not start or will 
make but little growth, so that eventually most of the 
fruiting branches and spurs will be developed near the 
upper end of a long cane which, when loaded with fruit, 
is apt to bend nearly or quite to the ground. 

"Besides heading-in the bushes in the way just described, 
the pruning consists in removing weak or broken branches 
and those which have made an excessively vigorous 
growth. Old canes that have passed the age of greatest 
productiveness, and branches that are close to the ground, 
should also be taken away. No definite rule can be given 
for pruning gooseberries, because the kind and amount 
required varies with the individual habits and condi- 
tion of growth of the bush. A little attention each 
year is necessary to keep the bushes in best shape for 
cultivating, spraying, fruit picking, and for the free circu- 
lation of air through and especially underneath the 
branches. It is a mistake to think that the center of 
the bush must be kept open to let the sunlight in, as is 
sometimes advocated. In this climate the fruit may be 
ruined by such unnatural exposure to direct sunlight, and 
it is better to have it shaded by the foliage. 



SHADE TREES AND HEDGES 333 

"Summer pruning is sometimes practiced with good 
results. It consists. in pinching off the ends of the vig- 
orous shoots at the period of active growth in early sum- 
mer. The object is to favor the development of fruit- 
spurs." 

Further remarks on the pruning of small -fruit 
plants may be found in Card's "Bush -Fruits." 

Shade Trees 

When shade trees are once well established, 
they usually need no attention in pruning except 
to remove broken or dying parts, to cut off limbs 
which hang too low, and to correct any tendency 
towards unshapely growth. When planted, the 
shade tree, if well branched, should be pruned 
in essentially the same way as apples and pears. 
Figs. 144, 145, 146 may be taken as models. 
Young trees which are well supplied with buds 
on the main axis may be cut to a whip, but the 
common practice of chopping large trees into the 
form of bean-poles is to be discouraged. 

Hedges 

The beauty and value of hedges lie in the 
thickness of the hedge, and in its uniformity 
from end to end. The plants should be set very 
close together, and the hedge should be system- 
atically and thoroughly pruned every year from 
the first. It is best, in fact, to prune the hedge 



334 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

two or three times during the season, in order to 
prevent too great and straggly growth of any 
one plant or any one branch of a plant. The 
practice of cutting down the hedge severely in 
winter, and then not touching it again until the 
following winter, results in a heavy growth which 
makes the hedge look ragged and unkempt dur- 
ing the summer, and which also makes it diffi- 
cult to bring the hedge under subjection. The 
hedge should be pruned in the winter time, and 
also should be sheared two or three times during 
the summer. The season of the year is imma- 
terial, so long as strong growths are kept down 
and the hedge is kept in uniform shape and con- 
dition. The operator must first decide upon the 
shape of hedge which he desires, whether conical- 
topped, round-topped or flat-topped, and then 
work to that model. The form should be blocked 
out very early in the life of the hedge, — in fact, 
just as soon as the plants begin to grow thick 
enough to form a wall. This same form can be 
kept year by year ; but the hedge will necessarily 
rise a little in height every year, at least until the 
plants have grown several years, and the vigor 
has begun to be checked by the continuous prun- 
ing and the crowding of the roots. 

In order to make hedges impenetrable to pigs 
and other animals, the plants are often plashed 
when young. This consists in bending the main 
shoots over to an oblique or diagonal position, 



FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS 335 

and securing them there by wiring them down, 
one plant bending over the following one. Plants 
which are to be plashed are generally set at an 
angle when transplanted to their permanent posi- 
tions. Deciduous -leaved and thorny plants, as 
osage orange, are generally used for the making 
of pig -tight hedges. 

Ornamental Plants 

Three objects are involved in the pruning of 
ornamental trees and shrubs, — to produce some 
desired form, to cause the plants to develop strong 
and uniform foliage, to produce flower -buds. The 
desired form is secured by shearing, the luxurious 
and continuous foliage by cutting back rampant 
growths and thereby encouraging a uniform de- 
velopment of the different parts of the plant, and 
the flower -buds by giving attention to the flower- 
bearing habit of the particular plant in question. 

The pruner should know whether the flowers 
are borne on the ends of terminal or lateral 
shoots of the season, or on the ends or sides 
of last year's shoots. 

Most early -flowering shrubs bear terminal flow- 
ers. Every effort should be made, therefore, to 
secure many shoots. The flower -buds in the 
early -flowering shrubs are formed the year be- 
fore. Heading -in in winter, then, destroys the 
bloom. Heading -in just as soon as the flowers 
fall encourages the growth of new shoots, which 



336 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

will bloom the following year. Of such plants 
are lilac, mock orange, many spireas, and the like. 
These shoots will form, of course, wholly without 
the aid of pruning, but when the bush begins 
to get crowded or weak, vigorous heading -back 
and thinning -out may be advisable. The impor- 
tant point is, that if the person desires to prune 
to keep his plant within a given form or stature, 
he should know when the cutting will not sacrifice 
the bloom. 

Summer -blooming trees and shrubs bear flowers 
on shoots of the same season. That is, the flower- 
buds are not formed the fall before. In these 
plants, we want a profusion of strong spring or 
early summer growths, and fall, winter or very 
early spring pruning is, therefore, desirable. Of 
this class are most of the roses. Rose bushes are 
pruned mostl}^ in fall or winter. The hybrid per- 
petuals are often cut to the ground and strong 
flowering shoots arise in the spring. The hardier 
and more perennial kinds — as the moss and cab- 
bage and rugosa types — are cut back when dor- 
mant, much as one would head -in and thin out a 
small fruit-tree. 

Walker gives the following hints on pruning 
outdoor roses:* 

" Pruning is an important matter in rose-growing. Climb- 
ing and pillar roses need only the weak branches and the 



*Ernest Walker, in "Garden-Making," 297. 



FLOWERING SHRUBS 337 

tips shortened -in ; other hardy kinds will usually need eat- 
ting-baek about one-fourth or one-third, according to the 
vigor of the branches, either in the spring or fall. A slight 
cutting-back, also, after their June-flowering in the case of 
remontants, will encourage more flowers. Severe pruning, 
however, will only induce the growth of vigorous, leafy 
shoots without flowers. The everblooming roses will need 
to have all dead wood removed at the time of uncovering 
them in spring. Some pruning during the summer is also 
useful in encouraging growth and flowers. The stronger 
branches which have flowered may be cut back one -half or 
more. The rule in trimming roses is, cut back weak-grow- 
ing kinds severely ; strong growers moderately." 

The following extracts give another view of the 
essential principles in the pruning of flowering 
shrubs : * 

"There are two or three elementary rules which are 
to be observed when the production of flowers is primarily 
desired. Shrubs which blossom early in the spring form 
their flower-buds the year before, and ingeniously protect 
them during the winter with a warm covering, so that they 
are ready to open with the early days of spring sunshine. 
Any one who will cut off the twig of a peach tree in the 
winter or of an early -flowering spirea and put it in water 
will understand this, for the flowers will expand in a few 
days after it has been brought into a warm room. Ob- 
viously, if the branches of such shrubs are cut-back hard in 
autumn, all the flower -buds are cut away and there is no 
bloom in the spring. If, however, the branches are cut-back 
immediately after the flowering season is over, this will 
encourage the growth of new shoots from buds near the 
base of the branch, and these will grow rapidly to take the 



*Editorial in "Garden and Forest," December 2, 189(5. 
V 



338 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

place of the part that has been lost, and cover themselves 
with flower-buds for another year. 

"Another class of shrubs, like the hydrangeas, althaeas and 
certain tamarisks, which flower in late summer or autumn 
from buds which have developed on the wood grown dur- 
ing the current summer, should be pruned in late autumn 
after flowering, or, at least, before the wood starts in the 
spring, so as to encourage abundant summer growth and 
flower-buds for the next autumn. 

"But these are the simplest elementary rules, and relate 
solely to the production of flowers. Shrubs are useful 
for many other purposes than merely to display their 
blossoms. They are beautiful all the year round. Even 
in the winter the variously colored barks of many of them 
add a singular charm to the landscape. We, therefore, 
prune them not only to promote the production of flowers, 
but of wood and foliage and fruit as well, to insure grace 
or symmetry of outline, and to make them vigorous and 
healthy. 

"The simple cutting-in of flowering wood in spring or 
fall is thus a small part of the art of pruning, and where 
there is a large variety of shrubs 1!here is no time of year 
when something in this direction cannot be done, and it is 
especially useful when it is continued throughout the entire 
growing season. 

" If surplus wood is to be removed, a clean cut in midsum- 
mer will heal over much more readily than it will in cold 
weather, and there is no better time for removing superfluous 
branches or for shortening-in over-vigorous shoots which 
interfere with the symmetry of a specimen. Some trees 
and shrubs, whose branches bleed when cut in spring, will 
heal over quickly if pruned while in full leaf. 

" If the strong branches are pinched back in summer the 
•wood will ripen into such a sound condition for withstand- 
ing cold that trees naturally tender have been known to 
endure our winters fairly well when their branches have been 



PRUNING SHRUBS 339 

properly stopped. This summer pinching is especially use- 
ful in wet seasons, when otherwise the wood keeps growing 
late in autumn and is caught by freezing weather in a soft 
and sappy condition. It also discourages upward growth 
where this is undesirable, and tends to develop fruit-buds, 
so that shrubs and trees will bear fruit at an earlier age when 
they are properly pinched-back. For the same reason 
shrubs will ripen their fruit more perfectly when the 
stronger shoots above it have been stopped. * * * 

"A young plant carefully pruned when it is set out in 
good ground, with room enough to grow in, will sometimes 
need, as it grows, to have interior branches cut away for 
the admission of light and air, and the over -strong shoots 
pinched-back in midsummer and dead wood carefully re- 
moved. Little more will be required, as a rule, except to 
shorten-in judiciously the flowering wood after bloom, and 
under this treatment shrubs will develop into their best 
form, and flower abundantly year after year." 

The important point to remember, then, in the 
pruning of flowering shrubs is that there are two 
great categories of shrubs as respects the time 
and mode of flower -bearing, — those flowering in 
earl}^ spring more or less directly from winter 
buds, and those flowering in summer or autumn 
from buds formed that season. The methods of 
pruning to produce a given form of bush are the 
same in either case ; but if it is desired to head- 
in and yet not to sacrifice the bloom, the early- 
flowering shrubs should be cut -back just after 
blooming rathe?^than in winter, and the summer- 
flowering kinds in winter (or when the plants 
are dormant). Some of the common shrubs 



340 SOME SPECIFIC ADVICE 

may be ranged in these two categories, as ex- 
amples : 

Spring-flowering 

{Head-back immediately after blooming) 

Kalmia. Weigela. 

Rhododendron. ForsytMa. 

Azalea. Flowering Currants. 

Snowball. Kerria. 

Lilac. Barberry. 

Mock -orange. Viburnnms. 

Most woody spireas. Flowering Crabs. 

Exochorda. Magnolias. 

Summer-flowering 

{Head-back when dorm,ant) 

Many roses. Althasa and hibiscus. 

SpirsBa sorbifolia. Tamarisk. 

Clematis. Elder. 
Hydrangea. 



Chaptee YI 



SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

There are many modes of training which are 
so special and of such local and personal appli- 
cation, that they should be considered in a class 
by themselves. They are essentially Old World 
methods, born of garden -culture and of cli- 
mates less hot and sunny than ours. (See. re - 
•marks under Section 13, Chapter IV.). They are 
not adapted to commercial fruit-growing or plant- 
growing in this country, nor to any country in 
which land is cheap and hand labor dear. Yet, 
so common are these special methods of training 
fruit-trees in Europe that the Old World litera- 
ture of pruning is largely descriptive of methods 
and modes of growing plants on walls and trel- 
lises and in geometrical figures. It is not neces- 
sary to make any extended discussion of these 
matters in this book, although a few summary 
hints may be given for the benefit of those who 
want the fun of training a few plants or who 
desire to copy European methods. For details 
the reader should consult foreign books, espe- 
cially those in French. 

We may analyze the subject as follows: 

(341) 



342 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

I. Training of plants growing in the open soil. 

1. Witliont permanent support. 

Pyramids, 
Globe-form, 
Vase-form, etc. 

2. On permanent support. 
a. On Espaliers — 

cordon, 

horizontal, 

oblique, 

fan -shape, 

horizontal arm, etc. 
h. On walls — 

cordon, 

horizontal, 

oblique, 

fan-shape, 

horizontal arm, etc. 
, II. Training of plants in receptacles (as pots 
or tubs). 
Trained in various fashions, but chiefly 
as self-supporting bushes of many 
shapes. 

E UBOPEAN PBA CTICE 

Before proceeding with our subject of special 
forms of training, it will be necessary to con- 
sider some of the words used in the above synop- 
sis. In Europe (and properly) the word stand- 



REMARKS ON TRAINING 343 

ard means growing to a single trunk and not 
trained to a wall, trellis, or other permanent sup- 
port. In this country, it is used in contradis- 
tinction to the word dwarf. An espalier is a 
trellis, or a plant which is grown on a trellis. 
The word does not refer to the mode of training. 
A cordon is properly a plant grown to a single 
shoot, or to two shoots trained in diametrically 
opposite directions. It is sometimes used, how- 
ever, to designate plants trained to two or more 
straight shoots which are nearly or quite parallel. 
Although the mode of training is largely a 
question of personal preference, it must never- 
theless conform to the principles of pruning, 
if it is to be successful. One of the best accounts 
which I know of the general principles under- 
lying the training of plants, is b}'^ Du Breuil.* 
Before proceeding to these principles, we may 
enumerate Du BreuiPs reasons for training: 

1. It enables us to impart to trees a form 
suitable to the place they are intended to occupy. 

2. Each of the principal branches of the tree 
is furnished with fruit branches throughout its 
full extent. 

3. It renders the fructification more equal ; for 
in removing every year the superabundant buds 
and branches, we contribute to the formation of 
new fruit-buds for the next year. 



*Alphonse Du Bretiil, " The Scientific and Profitable Culture of Fruit- 
trees", English edition. An excellent book for the student. 



344 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

4. It conduces to the production of large fruit 
and of finer quality. 

Du Breuil's "general principles of training," 
with corollaries, which apply with particular 
force to training on walls and espaliers, now 
follow : 

TJie permanency of form of trained trees is dependent upon 
the equal diffusion of sap heing maintained throughout 
the whole extent of their branches. 

Prune the strong branches short ; but allow the weaker 
ones to grow long. 

Depress the strong parts of the tree, and elevate the 
weak branches. 

Suppress the useless buds upon the strong parts as early 
as possible, and practice this suppression as late as pos- 
sible upon the weak parts. 

Suppress very early the herbaceous extremities of the 
strong part, but practice the suppression as late as pos- 
sible upon the weak part, taking off only the most vig- 
orous shoots, and those that must in any case be removed 
on account of the position they occupy. 

Nail up the strong part very early and very close to the 
wall or trellis, but delay doing so to the weak part. 

Suppress a number of the leaves upon the strong side. 

Allow as large a quantity of the fruit as possible to re- 
main upon the strong side, and suppress all upon the 
weak side. 

Soften all the green parts on the weak side with a solu- 
tion of sulfate of iron. ("This solution, in the propor- 
tion of twenty -four grains to a pint of water, applied 
after sunset, is absorbed by the leaves, and powerfully 
stimulates their action in drawing the sap from the 
roots.") 



PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING 345 

Bring forward the weak side from the wall, and keep 
the strong side close to it. 

Place a covering upon the strong part, so as to deprive 
it of the light. 

The sap develops the branches much more vigorously upon a 
hi'anch cut short, than upon one left long. 

The sap has always a tendency to flow towards the extremity 
of the branches, and to make the terminal bud develop 
loith more vigor than the lateral ones. 

TJie more the sap is retarded in its circulation, the less wood 
and the more fruit-buds icill it develop. 

Apply to the branches which grow from the successive 
extensions of the wood, and also to those which spring 
from them, the operations calculated to diminish their 
vigor. 

Apply to the larger branches a certain number of Gi- 
rardin's side grafts. (These are cions of fruit -spurs or 
fruit-buds set into the twigs as common buds are set. 
"These grafts, when fruiting, will absorb a considerable 
part of the superabundant sap.") 

Arch all the branches, so that a part of their extent be 
directed towards the sun. 

In the month of February, make an annular incision 
with the hand-saw, near the base of the stem, rather less 
than one-fourth of an inch in width, and sufficiently deep 
to penetrate the exterior layer of the wood. ("The in- 
cision has the effect of retarding the ascension of the 
sap; the branches acquire less vigor, and the tree forms 
fruit.") 

At the spring of the year, uncover the foot of the tree 
in such a manner as to expose the principal roots through- 
out nearly their entire extent, and allow them to remain 
in this state during the summer. 



346 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

Uncover the foot of the tree at spring, and cut away 
parts of the roots, and then replace the earth. 

Transplant the trees at the end of autumn, but with 
great care so as to preserve all the roots. (This is equiva- 
lent to root -pruning.) 

Every method which conduces to dimmish the vigor of the 
tcood and to make the sap flow to the fruit, tends to 
augment the size of the fruit. 

Graft upon stocks of a less vigorous species than the 
cions. 

Apply to the trees a suitable winter pruning; that is, do 
not leave upon them more branches, or parts of branches, 
than is requisite for the symmetrical development of the 
tree and the formation of fruit -bearing branches. 

Make fruit -spurs to grow close upon the branches by 
pruning them as short as possible. 

Cut the branches very close when the flower -buds are 
formed. 

Mutilate the summer shoots by repeatedly pinching off 
those shoots that are not required for the development of 
the size of the tree. 

When the fruits have attained a fifth degree of their 
development, suppress a further number of them. 

Make an annular incision upon the fruit-bearing 
branches at the time they expand their blossoms ; the 
incision must not be wider than three -sixteenths of an 
inch. ("Experience continually demonstrates that, fol- 
lowing such incision, the fruit becomes much larger and 
ripens better." See p. 281.) 

Graft some of the fruit branches of vigorous trees with 
the Girardin side graft. (See last page.) 

Place under the fruits, during their growth, a support, 
to prevent their stretching or twisting their foot -stalks or 
pedicels. ("If left without support, it will often happen 



PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING 347 

that the fruit grows unequally, and a twisting movement 
of the stalk follows, which injures the sap vessels. Be- 
sides, the weight of the fruit alone, hanging on its stem, 
stretches the sap vessels, and diminished their diameter. 
When the fruits are supported, the sap penetrates more 
freely, and their size is augmented accordingly.") 

Keep the fruits in their normal position during the en- 
tire period of their development; that is, with the fruit- 
stem lowermost. (" The sap acts with greater force when 
it flows upwards; a vertical position of the stalk, there- 
fore, causes the sap to ascend more easily and in greater 
quantity, and the fruit will become larger.") 

Place the fruits under the shade of the leaves during 
the entire period of their growth. ("If a young fruit be 
exposed to the power of the sun, it will be smaller than 
one shaded by the leaves, because its skin will be har- 
dened, and not give way to the tendency of the sap to ex- 
pand it.") 

Apply to the young fruits a solution of sulfate of iron. 
("We have already seen (page 334) that a solution of sul- 
fate of iron applied to the leaves, stimulates their powers 
of absorbing sap. The thought occurred to apply the 
solution to the fruits, and the effect in increasing their 
size was extraordinary. The solution should be in the 
proportion of twenty -four grains to a pint of water. 
Apply it only when the fruit is cool. Repeat the opera- 
tion three times : when the fruits have obtained a fourth 
part of their development ; when they are a little larger ; 
and again when they are three parts grown.") 

Graft by approach a small shoot upon the peduncle or 
fruit-spur, to which the fruit is attached when it has at- 
tained a third part of its development. ("It has been 
found that consequent on this operation the fruit becomes 
larger, doubtless because the graft draws to the peduncle 
a larger quantity of sap." See p. 132 of "The Nursery- 
Book," Third Ed.) 



348 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

The leaves serve the important imrpose of elaborating the 
sap of the roots and preparing it for the proper nourish- 
ment of the tree, and the formation of buds upon the 
boughs. A tree, therefore, that is deprived of its leaves 
is in danger of perishing. 

The yearly extensions of tvood should be shortened more or 
less, as the branches approach a vertical line, or the 
contrary. 

Plants are trained on walls for purposes of 
decoration or for fruit -bearing. Fruit trees so 
trained are protected from winter cold, and the 
fruits receive greater warmth and sunlight than 
they do when grown free. In sunny countries, 
with hot weather at the period of fruit -ripening, 
fruits develop their full color and flavor without 
the aid of walls. In fact, in America the south 
face of a wall may be too hot for the best re- 
sults with some fruits. On a south wall, too, 
the blossoms open very early in spring and are 
in danger of -being caught by frosts. This is 
especially true of apricots and peaches, and for 
them a westerly or even northerly exposure may 
be preferable. 

In Europe, gardens are very often surrounded 
with brick walls several feet high ; and in many 
cases, such walls are built across an area for the 
particular purpose of fruit-growing. The walls 
of buildings, whether of brick, stone or wood, 
may be used. An apricot, peach, pear or other 
fruit tree trained against a barn, shop, shed or 



FRUIT WALLS 349 

outhouse is not only a decoration but is an ob- 
ject of much interest and, if the location, variety 
and training are right, it should yield fruit of 
extra quality. It should be said that these 
trained trees cannot compete with orchard trees 
in quantity of fruit, but they should surpass 
them in the quality of the product. 

Following is specific advice, from the English 
standpoint, on the arrangement and construction 
of walls and fences,* by Cheal: 

"Walls. — The arrangement and position of walls will, of 
course, depend upon the size and the nature of the sur- 
roundings, etc., but they should always be arranged, if pos- 
sible, in a square, with the principal wall facing south, or 
as nearly so as practicable. Where it is possible, place the 
walls in such a position that the outside as well as the inside 
borders may be used for fruit, thus making use of the whole 
of the wall space; and bear in mind that upon the north 
side many useful fruits may be grown. The position, size 
and requirements are so varied that it is impossible in the 
compass of this work to give more than a general idea as to 
arrangements. 

"The height of the walls should be from eight feet to 
fifteen feet, according to circumstances. In most cases the 
south wall may be lower, to admit more sunshine into the 
garden ; and in the case of large gardens, one or more cross 
walls may also be introduced. As to their construction, 
they should be built without any piers. Architects have 
generally a great fancy for piers, and in many instances, 
insist upon having them; but walls can be built without 
piers, and they are always a great difficulty and nuisance to 



*J. Cheal, "Practical Fruit-Culture," London, 1892, 112. 



350 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

the gardener. They frequently interfere with the arrange- 
ment of the trees when planting, and in training they are a 
great trouble, and often cause much damage to the trees. 
Another matter of importance in construction is to provide 
a good permanent coping of tiles or stone, projecting at 
least six inches from the face of the wall. These should in 
all cases be provided independently of any further coping 
for the protection of the trees at the time of flowering. 

"Removable glass copings are very useful for peaches, 
nectarines and apricots. These are only required for a few 
weeks in the spring, at the time of blossoming and setting 
the fruit, and should be removed when no longer required. 
Fixed glass copings are very objectionable, as they keep off 
all rain, encourage red spider and other vermin, and neces- 
sitate constant syringing. There are several manufactur- 
ing firms who make light iron framework to carry the sashes, 
these being so constructed as to allow of their easy re- 
moval. 

"In all cases it is a great saving of labor to wire the walls 
or fences. These should be placed in lines not exceeding 
nine inches apart. Galvanized hold-fasts, tighteners, and 
all needful appliances are easily obtainable for the purpose. 
The wires should be fixed at about two inches from the wall. 

" Tying to the wire is much more quickly done than nailing 
to the wall, and does not afford the same shelter to insect 
pests, whilst it preserves the wall from injury due to con- 
stant nailing, and allows the wood to ripen more thoroughly 
and evenly. The branches are also enabled to form fruit- 
spurs and buds all round, and it frequently happens that 
the inside or back blossoms escape injury from frost which 
damages the outer ones, and a crop is thereby saved. In 
the case of all fruits, however, and especially that of 
peaches and nectarines, it is needful to be very careful in 
tying the trees in order to prevent the branch coming im- 
mediately into contact with the galvanized wire. Many 
instances have occurred of disease and decay resulting from 



THE MAKING OF WALLS 351 

this. There is, however, no danger if the precaution is 
always taken in tying to cross the tie between the branch 
and the wire, so that the branch is held firmly in position 
without coming into actual contact with the wire. And the 
danger may be still further lessened by painting the wires 
and hold-fasts after fixing. 

"Espalier fences. — These can generally be placed to ad- 
vantage in a kitchen garden, as they occupy but little space, 
and produce an abundance of fine fruit. They may be used 
as a bordering near to the paths, or at the back of the 
flower border, which is usually arranged on either side of 
the central walk, but there are also other positions outside 
the kitchen garden where they can be placed to advantage. 
If the fruit is well grown, such fences present an artistic 
appearance, and are admissible even in the ornamental 
garden, or may be used as a division between the ornamen- 
tal and kitchen garden. The fences themselves are usually 
formed of galvanized iron posts, with wires stretched be- 
tween. They require at each end a strong post made of 
angle iron, with anchor feet and stays, to bear the strain 
of tightening the wire. The intermediate posts need only 
be flat iron with anchor feet. For the ordinary horizontal 
form of training, five to six feet in height will be sufficient, 
but if made high enough — say from seven to nine feet — 
these fences are very good for training cordons upon. Groose- 
berries may also be trained upon low espalier fences of three 
to four feet in height, and when trained as double cordons, 
or as palmettes with three to five branches, they produce the 
finest possible fruit ; and this mode is strongly recommended 
for growing the choice dessert varieties. 

"Wire arches. — These may sometimes be suitably intro- 
duced into the kitchen garden, spanning some of the paths. 
They occupy but little ground space, and afford excellent 
means for the training of cordons. They give a pleasant 
shade to the path, the trees are well supported, and the fruit 
spread out to the full effect of the sun, and in some respects 



352 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

they are better for training the cordon trees upon than ordi- 
nary espaliers. The turn at the top gives the gentle cheek to 
the upright flow of sap so desirable and advantageous for 
securing fine fruit at the base of the tree. A garden in this 
neighborhood has one of these arches 350 feet in length, 
spanning the central road through the large kitchen garden, 
and being fifteen feet wide and of the same height, it forms 
a magnificent avenue. 

"Wooden fences. — It sometimes happens that wooden 
fences are placed in such a position as to be available for 
fruit. A wooden fence is in no case so good as a wall, as 
in the best of them there is always some draught, so that 
there is not the same uniform temperature maintained as in 
the case of walls, which, from their greater substance, 
retain a certain amount of warmth during the night. 
Nevertheless, wooden fences are very useful for fruit. 
They should always be wired before planting the trees, as 
it is diflS.eult to nail to the wooden fences, whilst wire also 
possesses other advantages. I have seen wooden fences 
employed to great advantage in Guernsey for fruit-growing. 
In one ease in particular I noticed a number of light wooden 
fences, about six feet high and nine feet apart, running 
north and south, and parallel to each other. These were 
covered on both sides with cordon -trained pears, and at the 
time of my visit they were laden with heavy crops of re- 
markably fine fruit, and the cultivator was by these means 
enabled to grow a very large quantity in a small space. 

"Many wooden fences surrounding the gardens of sub- 
urban villas might be turned to very useful account for 
growing fruit, and would afford healthful and interesting 
employment to the over -wrought brain -worker in cultivating 
it, as well as enable him to supply his own table with the 
freshest of fruit. There are also numberless wooden fences, 
as well as walls, in many of our farms and homesteads, 
whicli could be turned to profitable account by covering 
them with fruit, trained as above described. 



ENGLISH ADVICE 353 

"Bush -FRUITS. — Plantations of these are usually made 
outside the walled- in garden, either below orchard trees or 
in the open ground. The latter is much preferable, as they 
can receive better treatment and safer protection from 
birds. The last mentioned consideration is an important 
one. Where choice dessert fruit is required it must of 
necessity remain on the trees until fully ripe, and some of 
it has to remain as long as possible after ripening, to pro- 
long the season of use. With these the birds are extremely 
troublesome. The best way of protecting them, and also 
the cheapest in the long run, is to cover the plantation with 
galvanized wire netting.'^" Erect sufficient posts, and stretch 
from these galvanized wire at a height of six feet from the 
ground. Then across the wires fix the netting. Wire it 
together, and fasten it to the ground all round. If erected 
as above, it allows any one to work inside — to prune, clean 
and gather, etc. — whilst effectually preventing birds from 
approaching the fruit. 

*'The position of the bush-fruit outside the walled-in 
garden would, of course, depend upon circumstances, but 
it can generally be arranged very close at hand, and in con- 
junction with it, the sea-kale and rhubarb beds, etc., which 
are somewhat untidy in the spring, owing to the copious 
application of manure,- etc., required. The soil for the 
bush -fruits should be prepared by trenching and manuring 
as described for the inside kitchen garden." 

In the Old World, trees are trimmed in the nur- 
sery to adapt them to particular modes of train- 
ing. In fact, the training is often begun there. 
Fig. 235 is a young peach tree trained for a palm 
shape. The main shaft is supported by a stake, 
and two long stakes are attached to it, like a 

*A bird-netting is made in this country. See "Principles of Fruit- 
Growing," 296.— L. H. B. 
W 



354 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

gable. Other stakes are tied across this frame, 
and to them the arms of the tree are secured. 
Persons in this country who desire to train trees 







235. Trained peach tree, ready for setting in 
permanent quarters. 

to special shapes, should buy yearling trees of 
the nurseries. These are provided with buds on 
the main trunk or shaft, and when they are 



STARTING THE TRAINING 355 

headed -back, the required number of shoots may 
be secured in the proper positions. It may even 
be important not to select the largest yearlings, 
for on them the lower buds may be very weak. 
This is particularly true with peach trees, for in 
these the lower side buds break the first year, and 
the nurseryman trims them off into order to get a 
straight and long -bodied tree. 

How high to leave the trunk and how many 
branches to take out, depend entirely upon the 
mode of training which the operator has in mind. 
I have inserted various extracts which will serve 
as specimen examples to suggest the general 
methods of procedure. 

Before undertaking any method of special train- 
ing, the operator should apprehend the idea that 
there is no necessary or essential mode for any 
fruit. The mode of training is diametrically op- 
posed to the natural habit of the plant, and it 
is, therefore, a mental and arbitrary ideal. This 
fact will be apparent if the reader considers that 
most of the illustrations in the Old World literature 
of the subject are diagrams, not pictures. The 
operator works to geometrical figures. He sets a 
pattern ; and the more nearly the plant approaches 
this pattern the more satisfactory is the training. 

Some of the common forms in which fruit 
trees are trained are suggested in the following 
translation from Bois : * 



*D. Bois, "Le Petit Jardin," Paris, 264. 



356 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

"The pyramid. — An old and a good form, suitable es- 
pecially for pear trees. Its advantages are, that it can be 
cultivated in borders, where it relatively takes up little 
room; that it freely allows circulation of air and light; 
that it casts very little shade ; and that it bears abundantly. 
The pyramid or cone consists of a principal or vertical stem, 
covered with lateral branches from a point thirty centime- 
ters [a centimeter is about two -fifths of an inch] above the 
ground to the top of the tree. The branches, which grow 
somewhat obliquely, are separated from each other by a 
distance of about thirty centimeters, diminishing gradually 
in length from the bottom to the top, thus forming a cone, 
the largest diameter of which is about one-third of the 
total height. 

"The column or spindle. — This form is adapted to 
pears and apple trees. It has the advantage of taking up 
less room than the pyramid, and of bearing more quickly. 
On the other hand, it is not so long-lived, and is suitable 
for less vigorous varieties only. The column differs from 
the pyramid only in the fact that its lateral branches are 
shorter. 

"The vase. — Around a central stem, and at a distance 
of about fifteen centimeters above the ground, arise 
branches which grow first horizontally and then vertically, 
in such a way as to give to the entire tree the form of a 
vase. The branches must be separated from each other by 
a distance of about thirty centimeters, and they are main- 
tained in this position by tying them to hoops fastened to 
stakes inserted in the ground. This form is justly much 
esteemed. It freely allows a circulation of light and air 
through all its parts. 

"The bush or tuft. — The bush is suitable for currants, 
raspberries, etc. From the crotch of the plant, or at a short 
distance above the ground, arise branches which grow in 
every direction. It is simply necessary to train them so 
that they do not interfere with each other. 



BOIS ON TRAINING 



357 



"The horizontal cordon (Fig. 236) is suitable espe- 
cially for apple trees grafted on Paradise stock, and to the 
less vigorous varieties of pear trees grafted on quince stock. 
This form is especially to be recommended for the borders 
of walks. It consists of a stem which first grows verti- 
cally, then bent at a certain height, and is mamtained in 
this horizontal position by attaching it to wire. The trees 
are planted at a distance of two or three meters [a meter 







236. Apple trained to a simple cordon. 

is nearly forty inches] from each other, and their stems, 
when meeting, form a long, unbroken garland or wreath, 
which makes a very pretty effect. 

"Espalier training is to be especially recommended. 
It is suitable for all kinds of fruit trees, and allows the 
cultivation, in our latitude, of varieties the fruits of which 
would not ripen at all, or would ripen incompletely in a 
more exposed situation. When trained against walls, they 
receive an amount of heat sufficient to produce fruit of a 
superior quality. These include peaches, grapes, certain 
kinds of apricots, apples, pears, etc. The utilization of 
these walls is much neglected, and there would often be 
much profit in covering with espaliers the fronts of houses 
and all kinds of walls, especially when placed in a good 



358 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

situation, training the trees according to the form of the 
wall. The simplest form of espalier is the vertical cordon, 
which allows the trees to be planted very near together, 
which soon brings in a moderate return, and in a few years 
covers the wall. Like the column, this form is suitable 
only for the less vigorous varieties. It must be trained 
against a moderately high wall, for its growth is consid- 
erably stimulated by the suppression of its lateral branches, 
so that the principal stem has a tendency of growing rap- 
idly. Whenever it is necessary to cut them back very 
much, it produces an excessive development of wood, to 
the detriment of its productiveness. A form like a U, which 
is self-explanatory, is frequently employed. It is certainly 
one of the best. 

"The candelabrum (Figs. 237, 240) is formed by a 
number of lateral branches, from three to six, distributed 
regularly along the principal stem. The simple palmetto 
or palm leaf (Fig. 235) has a larger number of lateral 
branches. The Palmetto Verrier differs from the preceding 
only in the fact that after a certain distance its branches 
grow vertically. Palmettos are formed with 6, 7, 8, 10, 12 
branches, and even with more." 

How to train a pyramid standard pear tree is 
explained as follows by Rivers :* 

"If a young gardener intends to plant, and wishes to 
train up his trees so that they will become quite perfect in 
shape, he should select plants one year old from the bud or 
graft, with single upright stems ; these will, of course, have 
good buds down to the junction of the graft with the stock. 
The first spring a tree of this description should be headed - 
down, so as to leave the stem about eighteen inches long. 
If the soil be rich, from five to six and seven shoots will be 



♦Thomas Rivers, "The Miniature Fruit-Garden." 



RIVERS ON PYRAMIDS 359 

produced ; one of these must be made the leader, and if not 
inclined to be quite perpendicular, it must be fastened to a 
stake. As soon, in summer, as the leading shoot is ten 
inches long, its end must be pinched off; and if it pushes 
forth two or more shoots, pinch off all but one to three 
leaves, leaving the topmost for a leader. The side shoots 
will, in most cases, assume a regular shape ; if not, they 
may be this first season tied to slight stakes to make them 
grow in the proper direction. This is best done by bring- 
ing down and fastening the end of each shoot to a slight 
stake, so that an open pyramid may be formed — for if it is 
too close and cypress -like, enough air is not admitted to 
the fruit. They may remain unpruned till the end of 
August, when each shoot must be shortened to within eight 
buds of the stem. 

"The second season the tree will make vigorous growth; 
the side shoots which were topped last August will each 
put forth three, four, or more shoots. In June, as soon as 
these have made five or six leaves, they must be pinched 
off to three leaves, and if these spurs put forth shoots, 
which they often do, every shoot must be pinched down 
to one or two leaves, all hut the leading sJioot of each side 
hranch ; this must be left on to exhaust the tree of its 
superabundant sap, till the end of August, unless the tree 
is being trained as a compact pyramid. The perpendicular 
leader must be topped once or twice ; in short, as soon as 
it has grown ten inches, pinch off its top, and if it break 
into two or three shoots, pinch them all but the leader, as 
directed for the first season: in a few years most sym- 
metrical trees may be formed. 

"When they have attained the height of six or eight 
feet, and are still in a vigorous state, it will be necessary 
to commence root-pruning, to bring them into a fruitful 
state. 

"If some of the buds on the stem of a young tree prove 
dormant, so that part of it is bare and without a shoot 



360 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

where there should be one, a notch, half an inch wide, 
and nearly the same in depth, should be cut in the stem 
just above the dormant bud. If this be done in February, 
a young shoot will break out in the summer.^" * * 

"As the summer pinching of pyramidal pears is the 
most interesting feature in their culture, and perhaps the 
most agreeable of all horticultural occupations, I must 
endeavor to give plain instructions to carry it out. 

"The first season after the planting, about the middle 
or end of June, the side buds and branches will put forth 
young shoots ; each will give from one to three or four. 
Select that which is most horizontal in its growth (it should 
be on the lower part of the branch, as the tree will then 
be more inclined to spread) for a leader to that branch, 
and pinch off all the others to three leaves. If these 
pinched shoots again push, suffer them to make three 
leaves, and then pinch them to two leaves; but if the 
horizontal branch has a good leader, it will take off all the 
superfluous sap, and prevent the pinched spurs from break- 
ing; the buds will only swell, and the following season 
they will be fruit -spurs. The upper shoots of the tree, 
say to about two feet from its top, should be pinched a 
week before the lower shoots: this gives strength to those 
on the lower part of the tree. 

"In spring the perpendicular leader of the preceding 
year's growth will put forth numerous shoots, which must 
be pinched in June in the following manner: those nearest 
the base, leave six inches in length' gradually decreasing 
upwards, leaving those next the young leading shoot only 
two inches long. The leader of these ready-formed pyra- 
mids need not be shortened in summer, as directed for 
younger trees; it may be suffered to grow till the hori- 



*Bare places in the stems of pyramids, and in tlie branches of espa- 
liers or -wall trees, may be budded towards the end of A^^gi^ist with 
blossom-bnds taken from shoots two years old. This is a very inter- 
esting mode of furnishing a tree with fruit-bearing buds. Page 345. 



HARDY ON PALMETTES 361 

zontal leaders are shortened in August, and then left six 
or eight inches in length; but if the trees are to be kept 
to six or seven feet in height under root -pruning, this 
leading shoot may be shortened to two inches, or even 
cut close down to its base. For tall pyramids of ten, 
twelve, or fifteen feet, it may be left from eight to ten 
inches in length till the required height be attained; it 
may then be cut to within two inches of its base every 
season." 

The methods to be pursued in the training of 
trees on espaliers may be explained by a concrete 
example. I choose an extract from Hardy* re- 
specting the training of a palmette on an espa- 
lier. A simple palmette is a plant with a single 
erect stem and a number of side branches, as in 
Fig. 235 ; a vertical -branched palmette or can- 
delabrum is shown in Fig. 237. 

"We endeavor to obtain three branches, — one to continue 
the growth of the trunk, the two others to furnish two 
lowest lateral branches. To secure this result, we will 
choose a bud [head- in the shoot] about thirty centimeters 
[a centimeter is nearly two -fifths of an inch] from the 
ground. The middle bud will push a shoot upwards and 
the two others obliquely, but not too near the horizontal, 
so that they can make a vigorous growth. There is nothing 
else to do during the growing season, if the equilibrium 
between them maintains itself. 

"The vertical -branched palmette does best in soils of 
medium quality, as well as for high walls. In the first case, 
the verticality of the main branches assures to the last a 



*J. A. Hardy, "Traite de la Taille des Arbres Fruitiers," Paris, 1865, 
129, 137. One of the best books on the subject. 



362 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

more sustained vegetation than when they are horizontal. 
In the second case, they more promptly cover the wall, for 
with this form we can plant the trees very close to each 
other, a meter [about forty inches] or a meter and a quarter 
apart, according to the distance which we leave between 



4^ 


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f 


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ztj 


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feBS!Bzffllgj,^l8^^ja>J^^_,, TTj^^ 









237. Candelabrum espalier pear tree. 



the branches; the more we stretch out the framework the 
more the sap is reserved for a less number of branches. 

"The manner of establishing this form scarcely differs 
from that of the simple palmette. The first year we trim 
as described in the first paragraph, only that instead of 
obtaining two oblique lateral shoots, as there described, it 
is necessary to cut the stem back to only about forty centi- 
meters, and we train the two branches (A) up vertically. 
* * * The second year we pinch the shoot to obtain the 
second pair of branches about twenty centimeters above the 



BELLAIR ON CORDONS 363 

first, and we direct these into the center of the space be- 
tween the first two branches, training these framework 
branches twenty centimeters from each other. Then we 
trim the first branches (A) to a length double that of the 
trunk. The space of twenty centimeters is not absolute; 
we can make it twenty-five centimeters. Then, instead of 
planting the trees one meter apart, we can place them a 
meter and a quarter, in such manner that the extremes of 
the framework of neighboring trees shall be as far apart as 
are the main branches of the tree itself. This second dis- 
tance is preferable, as the branches receive more light and 
air, a condition which is essential for good fruit -bearing. 

"The following years the treatment follows the method 
indicated, with all the main branches [two pairs and the 
trunk], but, however, taking care that we leave the outside 
branches (A) a little longer than the others, so that they can 
maintain their predominance. The tree thus treated arrives 
at the height of the wall in the sixth year, if its vigor is 
maintained and it meets with no accident." 

The treatment of a simple horizontal cordon 
(Fig. 236) is thus described by Bellair:* 

"When grown in this way, the pear tree consists of a 
stem bent at a distance of forty centimeters above the 
ground, then trained horizontally and covered with fruit- 
bearing branches. The cordons are trained as much as 
possible toward the strongest light. If the plantation is 
established on a slope, it is necessary to train the cordons 
toward the summit of the slope. Only pears grafted on 
quince stock, and apple trees grafted on Paradise or 
Doucin stock, can be grown in this way. Pear trees and 
apple trees grafted on their own stock are too vigorous, as 
they require (for otherwise they would remain sterile) more 



*G. Ad. Bellair, "Les Arbres Fruitiers," Paris, 1891, 164. 



364 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

room than the horizontal cordon allows. One-year-old 
apple cions grafted on Paradise stock must be planted at a 
distance of three meters from each other. One-year-old 
apple cions grafted on Doucin stock, and pears on quince 
stock, must be planted at a distance of four meters from 
each other. The first year they are cut at a distance of 
about sixty centimeters above the ground, and near a bud, 
which is located on the side toward which the stem is to be 
inclined. In the autumn or in the following spring, these 
cions are gradually bent. But if the part beyond the bend 
must be strictly horizontal, it is necessary that the ex- 
tremity of the cordon be slightly raised, in order to facili- 
tate the flow of the sap, and consequently the elongation of 
the cordon. From this time, the yearly growth of the cor- 
don must be cut in such a way as to preserve two -thirds or 
three-fourths of its length. It is soon covered with 
branches, some of which are entirely fertile (that is, bear- 
ing fruit -producing buds), while the others, or sterile ones, 
must be cut away. This kind of treatment prevents them 
from obtaining too large a growth and thus still more de- 
stroying its fertility." 

Excepting the grape, the training of the peach 
has probably been the subject of more literature* 
than that of any other plant ; yet so different 
are the American conditions and ideals from 
the European that this technical literature has 
almost no application in this country. The 
United States is a land of peaches, notwithstand- 
ing the fact that this fruit is adapted to only 
special localities. It is not necessary that we 



*Coiisiilt, as an example, Brehaut's "Modern Peach Pruner"; also 
Hartwig "Die Kultur des Pfirsichbaumes am Spaliere," Weimar, 1886. 



THOMSON ON PEACH TRAINING 365 

train them to walls, or that we give them any 
other special or pecnliar treatment in the way of 
training. Those who are interested in Old World 
practices, however, or who desire to train peaches 
on walls or in houses, will appreciate the follow- 
ing extract from Thomson : * 

"Many ways of training and pruning the peach and 
nectarine have been practiced and recommended. French 
horticulturists especially have been very successful in train- 
ing them in several ways characterized by regularity and 
neatness. The single -cordon as well as the multiciple- 
cordon systems are favorite modes of training in France. 
Modifications, partaking more or less of the French sys- 
tems, have been practiced and recommended, especially by 
Seymour, in England. But the ordinary fan system of 
training is by far the most generally practiced and liked. 
It is, especially under glass, the mode of training which 
the most successful forcers of the peach have adopted, and 
it is that which I recommend. Many grand old examples of 
peach trees under glass are to be found in this country, 
which have all along been trained on the fan principle, and 
that are yet in fine bearing condition, being well furnished 
from top to bottom with young bearing wood. Taking a 
young tree, which I have recommended for planting as the 
foundation of a fan-trained tree, different cultivators who 
are most in favor of this system of training would deal 
differently with the ten young growths [five branches on 
each side, and no leader, all arising from near the top of a 
short trunk] with which it is furnished. Some would cut 
them all back again to within five or six buds of their base ; 
others would not shorten them at all, but would let them 



* David Thomson, "Handy Book of Fruit Culture Under Glass," 152, 
with figures. 



366 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

start into growtli with as many young shoots as could be 
tied to the trellis without crowding them. What I have 
practiced and would recommend is a mean between these 
two. The two center shoots I would shorten back to half 
their length, the other eight shoots to be merely topped 
back to solid, well -ripened wood. The cutting somewhat 
closely back of the two center ones makes it certain that 
two or three good, strong growths will start from near their 
base to properly fill up the center of the tree with leaders. 
Each of the other eight shoots should have all their buds 
removed by degrees, except one near the base, and one or 
two at equal distances between it and the leading bud, ac- 
cording to the length of the shoots; two buds to be left 
on the under side — if the shoots are long enough to have 
room for three on the upper side, — the buds on the one side 
to alternate in position with those on the other. These 
lateral growths, with the leader, are enough to lay a foun- 
dation to serve for the future full-grown tree. The lateral 
growths should be allowed to grow without being stopped. 
Should the leaders show signs of growing very vigorously 
at the expense of the side growths, stop them whenever 
they show such a tendency. This will cause them to make 
lateral growths freely, and equally balance the growth of 
all the young shoots. This encouragement of lateral 
growths, especially on the young wood in the center of the 
tree, gives sufficient to furnish the tree without having 
recourse to the undesirable practice of first allowing a few 
very strong leaders to monopolize the sap, and then to cut 
them down at the winter pruning. In this way much time 
is gained in covering a wall or trellis with bearing wood. 

"A young tree thus managed on what may be termed a 
mean between the extension and the cutting -hard -back 
systems produces a comparatively large, well -furnished 
tree the autumn after it is planted, and one which requires 
very little or no winter pruning before starting it into 
another year's growth. If the summer disbudding and 



THOMSON ON THE PEACH 367 

pinching of the first season's growth have been properly- 
attended to, the tree will be so thoroughly furnished with 
young wood that all the pruning that should be done is 
simply to remove any shoots that would crowd the tree. 
The distance between the shoots should not be less than 
three or four inches. In February, 1878, I planted a num- 
ber of young peaches and nectarines in an orchard -house. 
In the autumn not a single shoot was shortened-back, and 
at the close of their second year's growth the trees thor- 
oughly furnished, in many instances, spaces of eighteen 
feet by thirteen feet, and a great many of them sixteen 
feet by twelve feet, besides bearing a good crop the season 
after being planted. There are some magnificent trees at 
Brayton Hall, which Mr. Hammond, the able gardener 
there, managed on the extension system, and consequently 
filled their allotted spaces and bore grand crops in half the 
time in which this could have been done by the old cutting- 
back system. 

" After the trees have grown and covered the space al- 
lotted to each, the system of pruning must be directed so 
as to continually keep the whole tree regularly supplied 
with young fruit -bearing wood. With a view to this, of 
course, the yearly removal of old wood in winter, and the 
laying in of a corresponding amount of young wood in 
summer, must be carefully attended to. ^ * * * 

" Some make a practice of cutting back the young bear- 
ing wood to two -thirds its length. I do not advocate this 
indiscriminately. Where the shoots are long and not well- 
ripened, and the buds consequently weak, they should be 
shortened-back to where the wood is firm, and always to 
a strong wood -bud. Peach trees in a healthy condition 
have their buds in clusters of three — a wood-bud in the 
center, and a fruit-bud on each side of it; and to such a 
cluster of buds they should always be cut when cut at all. 

"Well-established trees that have borne heavy crops 
regularly, and especially those that have been forced early, 



368 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

generally make shorter and stronger growths, well studded 
with strong clusters of buds. In this ease it is inadvisable 
to shorten them back at all. A watchful eye must always 
be kept on the lower portion of the tree, so that it is not 
allowed to get bare of young fruit-bearing growths. It 
need scarcely be said that, from the fact that it is the 
young wood that bears, the tendency is for it to be in 
greatest abundance at the top. 

"The best guarantee against trees becoming bare of 
young bearing-wood at their lowest parts, is to annually cut 
back a few healthy young growths to two or three eyes, 
and allow as many of these to bud and grow as may be re- 
quired to keep up the supply of young wood. This is an 
indispensable necessity, from the fact that portions of old 
wood have annually to be removed at the top of the tree. 
In practice, all other things being equal, there is little diffi- 
culty experienced in thus furnishing the lower portions of 
the tree with bearing-wood. All cutting should be effected 
with a sharp, thin knife; and whenever it becomes neces- 
sary to remove an old limb, the wound should be painted 
solidly over with white paint." 

In order to show the nicety to which training 
may be carried, the following extract from Du 
Breuil will be interesting : * 

"Training of the pear in vase or goblet form.— 
Trees in the pyramidal form are, in some situations, liable 
to injury from high winds. When that is the case, the 
vase or goblet form may be substituted. But it is not 
otherwise to be preferred, for it requires as much room as 
the pyramid form, and does not present so great a fruit- 
bearing surface. 

" Trees in vase form should leave a diameter of about six 



*"The Scientific and Profitable Culture of Fruit Trees. 



Du breuil's advice 369 

feet six inches (and an equal height), so that the solar 
rays may act upon the whole interior surface of the vase. 
An interval of twelve inches should be left between each 
of the branches. Supposing the tree to be twenty feet in 
circumference, there should be about twenty branches at 
the base, from which to form the tree. 

"The branches may either be trained vertically, or made 
to cross each other alternately right to left, following an 
angle of thirty degrees, as shown in Fig. 238. We con- 
sider the latter form preferable. The sap acts more equally 
throughout the entire extent of the branches, which also 
fruit more regularly, and the tree can better support itself 
when completely formed. 

"The method of proceeding to develop the wood is as 
follows : Choose plants that have been grafted a year, and 
apply the first pruning; when they have been planted out 
another year, cut them down to sixteen inches from the 
ground. During the summer select five shoots, and main- 
tain an equal degree of vigor by pinching. At the second 
pruning, cut off each of the branches to sixteen inches 
from their base, above two buds growing laterally, so as to 
make each of the branches fork; lower the branches a little 
and dispose them regularly round the circumference of the 
stem by means of a hoop. During the summer equalize the 
vigor between the ten shoots that have now been obtained. 
At the third pruning, cut back each of the ten shoots to 
twelve inches from their base, to make them fork a second 
time. Incline the branches again, and equalize the spaces 
between them by means of two hoops, the uppermost being 
the larger. Treat the twenty shoots that have grown during 
the summer in the same manner as the previous ones. At 
the fourth pruning, suppress only the third of the length of 
the new branches, and again incline them downwards to an 
angle of about twenty degrees, then raise the ends of the 
branches in a vertical position at about three feet from the 
stem, and keep them in that position by means of addi- 
X 



370 



SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 



tional hoops. During the summer allow only one terminal 
bud to develop. When the time arrives for the fifth opera- 
tion, cross the branches at the place of their second fork- 
ing, directing them alternately right and left, inclined to an 




238. Outline of pear trained in vase form. 



angle of thirty degrees. Fig. 239 shows the plan of a pear 
tree trained in this form, and how the branches should be 
crossed. The new extensions, obtained during the previous 
summer, must be left entire, and so on from year to year, 
until the tree has attained its proper size. The inclined 
position of the branches will cause them to put forth nu- 
merous shoots, each of which must be trained in a spiral 
direction, to be arrested only when the tree attains a height 
of about six or seven feet, when it will be fully formed, 
and resemble Fig, 238. 



VASE -FORM TREES 



371 



"As the tree increases in height, each of the branches 
must be grafted together by approach [inarching] at each of 
the points where they cross. This will give great strength 




239. Plan of the tree. 



and solidity to the tree, and enable it to dispense with any 
other support when the wood is completely established. 

"The fruit branches, which are not shown on the figures, 
are formed and kept in bearing in the same manner as in 
pyramid trees." 

Before leaving this part of our discussion, we 
may look at the pictures. With the exception 
of Figs. 238, 239, 242, these are made from photo- 
graphs taken at various times by the writer. 
Fig. 235 is a palm -leaf (or palmette) peach tree, 
ready for planting against a wall. This tree was 
on exhibition at the Gartenbau Austellung, at Ham- 
burg, in 1897. Fig 236 is a cordon dwarf apple 



372 



SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 



from Saxony. The wire is about twenty inches 
above the ground, and the single arm or trunk 
of the tree extends about eight feet. Fig. 237 
is a sketch of part of an espalier pear in the 
grounds of the Gartenbau Hochschule, near Berlin. 




240. Three-arm espalier. 



Fig. 240, from Germany, is part of a three-arm 
candelabra espalier apple tree. Fig. 241 is an 
old espalier Greening apple tree growing in west- 
ern New York. The trellis has long since been 
removed and the tree now supports itself, although 
extending over a space about thirty feet long. 
This is not a good specimen of training, but it 
shows how readily a dwarf apple can be made 



PICTURES OF TRAINED TREES 



373 



to assume a horizontal direction. Fig. 242 is a 
diagram of a wall- trained apricot. Fig. 243 is 
















'/'i>.^,.i"''.«<;:i»'f',*'-,-;^-.'j('/'.. 

v.A.-^M^'^'^^^,J3^^ -■"■"• f; 

241. Old apple espalier in New York. 



a dwarf pear trained in fan -shape on a wall, in 
England. Fig. 244 is a pear tree covering the 




242. Wall-trained apricot of palmette form. 

south front of a cottage in southern Bavaria. 
The photograph was taken in August, and the 



374 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TEAINING 

season's growths are seen projecting beyond the 
roof- line. 

TREES AND BUSHES IN POTS 

Many fruit trees are successfully grown in pots 
or boxes, being used either for forcing purposes 
or for fruit -bearing at their normal season. Such 




243. Fan-trained dwarf pear. 

trees, unless used for forcing, are chiefly valuable 
as ornamentals and curiosities, although the fruits 
should be oE the very finest quality. Fig. 245 is 
an apple tree several years old, in full bearing. 
It is in a sixteen -inch pot. Trees of this size 
should ripen from ten to twenty-five apples. Pot- 
grown apples and pears should be dwarfs. 



TREES IN POTS 



375 



Peaches and apricots on their own roots do well 
in pots. Cherries are usually worked on Mahaleb 




244. Good specimen of wall-trained pear tree. 



for this purpose, and plums are often grown on 
Myrobalan roots. Trees should bear in the third 
or fourth year. 



376 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

The following sketch from Warneken* conveys 
a general idea of the method of trimming and 
training pot -fruits in the pyramid form (which 
is the most popular shape) : 

" The form of trees is given but little attention by many 
pot-fruit tree growers, they looking only to large yields of 
fruit. Others, again, desire to give pot-fruit trees every 
conceivable artificial form, even espalier forms having 
been recommended. Although it must be constantly our 
aim to produce a large fruit yield, it is not necessary, 
thereby, to neglect the form of the trees ; and a pleasing 
form with a large yield can be readily combined. 

"Form of the trees. — Our pot trees must at times be 
set closely together, and it is, therefore, not desirable to 
produce such large forms as demand much space; as, e. g., 
crown trees or trees of cup shape. If, however, it is de- 
sirable to train these forms in pots, their pruning may be 
studied in a pruning book. We shall not describe this 
pruning, as we do not care to puzzle the beginner with so 
many artificial forms, but we shall suggest such simple 
and easily made forms as appeal to a rational culture, and 
which are the result of many years of experience. For 
such varieties of fruits as in their nature are suitable to 
the pyramidal form, this remains the best. We, therefore, 
give our trees, with advantage, only the following form. 

"Apples and pears we train to a narrow shape, — in the 
full grown condition a pyramid about fifty to sixty centi- 
meters wide [a centimeter is about two -fifths of an inch]. 
Peaches, plums, cherries, apricots and figs we train to a 
pyramidal bush, which, however, should not be over sixty 
centimeters wide at the bottom. With peaches and plums, 
the more practical narrow pyramids recommended for 



*H. B. Warneken, "Die Kulttu' des Obstbaiimes im Topfe", Frank- 
furt a. d. Oder, 1889, 33. 



TREES IN POTS 



377 



apples and pears, also eolmnnar pyramids, may be used. 
Grapes cultivated in pots are trained to so-called spiral 
cordons, whicli have a corks crew -like, twisted stem car- 
ried on three stakes. 

"Preliminary training, in its first year, of a tree 
DESTINED FOR POT -CULTURE. — Peaches and other fruits can 








245. Pot-grown apple 
in full bearing. 




246. Pot tree in 
July of its sec- 
ond year. 



247. Showing 

liow the tree is to 

be pruned. 



be prepared for pot culture in their first year. If we have 
personally budded our trees, we pinch off the tip of the 
young shoot which appears in early summer, according to 
its strong or weak development, when it has grown to a 



378 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

length of thirty to fifty centimeters. As a result, the 
buds at the side will develop in the first year into small 
shoots. As soon as these have formed four or five buds, 
they are pinched back to two or three buds. If the 
highest of these lengthening buds develops a strong shoot, 
and if the side shoots are backward and irregularly placed, 
the main shoot can be pinched again. The trees thus 
treated during the first year have a stronger and more 
compact form, and all the lower buds are better developed. 
We gain time, therefore, by making the best of the first 
year, particularly with peaches, and secure more rapidly 
bearing trees. 

"The one-year-old tree, generally smooth and un- 
branched, will be at our disposal. If, however, too early 
side shoots have been developed, they must be removed at 
their base on the stem, in order net to secure a confused 
tree. We now cut all such unbranched one-year-old trees 
of all fruits to the length noted for peaches, that is, fifty 
centimeters, and to a strong bud. With stone fruits we 
now choose three to four buds pointing in dift'erent direc- 
tions, beginning above fifteen centimeters from the ground, 
and crescent-like cuts are made with a sharp knife into the 
bark above each of these. If all the buds on these stems 
develop, we retain but six or seven of those on top and 
pinch off the lower ones, as our pyramids shall not branch 
immediately above the soil, but shall first make a stem fif- 
teen to twenty centimeters high, in order that the fruits 
shall not be too near the soil and get dirty and be of lesser 
value. The uppermost shoot is fastened perpendicularly to 
the projecting stub (Fig. 246) The remaining side shoots 
we try to have equally strong, and we secure this by pinch- 
ing back the stronger. All shoots have their points pinched 
off as soon as they are thirty centimeters long. From July 
to August we remove the stub which projects beyond the 
uppermost branch (Fig. 246). On apples, pears, peaches, 
apricots, plums, and cherries we have nothing to do other 



TREES IN POTS 379 

than what has been mentioned, and to keep them in health 
and free from pests. If the plant lice are not promptly 
removed, they greatly injure the young trees while they are 
yet developing their structure, as they suck out completely 
the young shoots so that they dry out. If we have one- 
year-old stems of pears and plums which, during the first 
year, have clothed themselves all over and in a regular 
manner with shoots, beginning fifteen centimeters above 
the ground, we cut these back to three buds. The stem 
itself is taken back one -third its length, and is then and 
ever thereafter cut to a spur or stub. 

"The second year. — At the winter pruning of the sec- 
ond year, the side shoots of seed fruits are reduced to four 
to six buds and those of the stone fruits to three to four 
buds. With the seed fruits, we try to call forth weak 
shoots from all buds by means of cross-cuts above them. 
In the case of stone fruits, this must never be done, as 
by this means the outflow of sap and the so-called bleed- 
ing would be induced. The stem, when strong and over 
thirty centimeters long, is cut back to one -half its length, 
or to about six to eight buds. Weak and short shoots up 
to twenty centimeters remain uncut. The summer pruning 
or pinching back is practiced on all trees. As soon as 
the strongest shoots have developed six buds, they are 
pinched back to four buds, and this treatment is gradually 
given to the others as they develop. If the shoots should 
again grow out, the new growth is pinched back to two 
buds, and this treatment is continued all summer, so that 
every new shoot is reduced to two buds. This repeated 
pinching has for its object the thickening of the buds at 
the base of the shoot and to change them to fruit -buds. 
The bearing wood in the seed fruits can bear fruit for 
years, and it is therefore only necessary to induce the 
gradual change of the woody shoots into bearing wood. 

"The tree in July of its second year is shown in Fig. 246, 
Z is the stub to be removed in July at the point 8. At a 



380 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

are points at which side shoots are pinched back. Fig. 247 
shows the winter pruning on the two-year-old tree. S, 
points at which all side shoots are to be cut. 1, 2, 3, buds 
which are to receive cross-cuts. St, the bud destined to 
lengthen the stem; it must be above the point of last 
year's cut, as at O; St, up to i, the new stub ; i, point at 
which the shoot is cut. 

"In the stone fruits, the wood which has borne dies off, 
and it is necessary to have new bearing wood each year. 
We must, therefore, prune in such a manner that con- 
tinually new bearing wood for the next year is formed. 
Therefore, on every fruiting branch of a peach there should 
be two leaf -buds at its base as a reserve. On the branches 
of the peach are found buds of varying appearance, — thick 
roundish, and thin pointed. The former are flower-buds 
and the latter leaf -buds. It happens at times that a flower- 
bud stands alone, generally on thin bearing branches, and 
again that a leaf-bud stands alone, as on strong shoots and 
young stems. We may also find a flower-bud and a leaf- 
bud or two flower-buds united, and finally a pointed leaf- 
bud between two round flower-buds. Our peach trees are 
therefore cut for the first time in the early spring, when 
even the beginner can distinguish flower and leaf -buds. 
On many strong branches nothing but leaf-buds are found, 
on single, thin fruit branches again only flower-buds. The 
latter, we may as well mention here, are the worst, as they 
must die from lack of leaf -buds. The best fruit branches 
are studded with triple and double buds, and have at their 
base some simple leaf -buds. The majority of fruit 
branches have only simple and double buds and at the point 
a leaf-bud. Excellent fruit-bearers are the very short 
cluster spurs but a few centimeters long. These have at 
their tip a whole bouquet of flower-buds and a leaf -bud in 
the center, and these are not pruned. Our task is, then, to 
keep the shortest possible branches, and allow those to bear 
fruit which have leaf -buds above their flowers, in order to 



PEACHES IN POTS 381 

lead away the superfluous sap not necessary for the fruit. 
At the same time, these branches must have at their base 
several leaf-buds to which we may cut back and cause the 
production of bearing wood for the next year. Long and 
thin branches, with but single or double flower -buds and a 
leaf -bud at the point, can bear fruit, but leave behind only 
bare places in the fall when they die. It is, finally, to be 
observed, in cutting-back, that this should not be done to a 
single flower-bud, as otherwise the shoot dies off to the next 
leaf -bud. Those shoots on which the dead flowers fall off 
can be cut back immediately after flowering to the two 
leaf -buds at the base. An observance of these directions 
will make it an easy matter to prune peaches in the spring. 
The pyramidal form which is to be given must, however, 
always be kept in mind in determining the position of the 
branches to be saved. 

"The third and following years. — In the winter 
pruning of the third and following years, the shoots of the 
year before, on all fruits, are cut -back to three to four buds, 
and here it is that the pyramidal form must be looked after. 
All trees clothe themselves with weak bearing wood at the 
base of last year's stem, and the pruning of the stem 
growth must be done accordingly. If it were cut too long, 
many of the buds would not grow, and bare places would 
result. Too heavy pruning would cause the formation of 
strong, woody shoots at the lower part of the tree. With 
our seed fruit and stone fruit pyramids in pots, the branches 
must not stand too thick or shade each other. At all times 
light and air must reach the stem in order to benefit 
the fruits. The removal of single large stems in later 
years will make this possible. It may also be mentioned 
here that the dry wood forming in the tree in later life 
should be removed. In the third, as in all following years, 
the summer pinching-baek is executed the same as in the 
first year, and in the stone fruits, particularly in peaches, 
provide for the fruiting wood in the coming year. Thus 



382 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

we build out our pyramid in the pot, and by means of tJie 
regular use of the stub to tie to, the lengthening shoot is 
given a pleasing, erect form. The wood shoot will moderate 
with increasing fruitfulness, so that in later years it will not 
be necessary to cut it much, and pinching in the summer 
will be sufficient." 

The growing of cherry trees in pots, by Mr. 
Rivers, one of the best English growers, is thus 
described : * 

"The method of growing cherries in Rivers' orchard - 
houses is given below in detail, with plans of a house. 
Most of the trees are grafted on cherry stock, except the 
Duke cherries and Early Elvers and Governor Wood, which 
are grafted on Mahaleb stock. They are never lifted or 
replanted before potting. 

"Early in autumn one and two-year-old trees are taken 
up, their roots shortened so that they can be put into the 
pots without breaking, and planted in eight or twelve -inch 
pots. This potting must be done carefully, and the trees 
must be set so deep that the big roots near the surface will 
be covered with an inch of soil. Cover the bottom of the 
pots with a good, thick layer of drainage. The soil used in 
potting is a light, sandy loam, enriched with one -third of 
well -decayed fertilizer. It is important to firm the soil well 
around and among the roots. Fill it in by degrees, in 
small quantities, and beat it down firmly all through the 
pot, taking care not to injure the roots. After potting, the 
trees are set in a sheltered place outdoors, the pots being 
covered with leaves. If the soil is moist enough when the 
trees are potted, they will not need watering. 

"When spring comes the tree must be thinned out and 
the pots plunged one -third of their depth in the earth. 



*A. K. Anderson in "American Garden," xiii., 594. 



CHERRIES IN POTS 383 

The trees remain here all the summer, are watered carefully 
every morning when the weather is bright and dry, and 
syringed with pure water if the greenfly is troublesome. 
In July, when the trees are well rooted, a top-dressing of 
stable -manure and kiln -dust in equal parts is given the 
trees. A few days before the top-dressing is used it is 
spread out in thin layers somewhere outdoors, and soaked 
several times with liquid manure. It is applied to the soil 
in the pots, in layers two inches thick near the rims, but 
thinner near the stems of the trees. This top-dressing 
greatly improves and strengthens the trees for the coming 
year. 

"After growing in pots one summer, trees are fit to be 
sold the following autumn or spring. From Rivers' nur- 
sery three or four hundred potted cherry trees are sold 
yearly, the number increasing constantly. Old cherry trees 
that have been cultivated in pots for years are kept during 
winter in one of the orchard-houses. When spring comes 
and their buds begin to start, the pots are plunged up to 
the rim in the ground in the cherry-house. 

"The pyramidal form is best and most used for potted 
cherry trees. Pruning is not often necessary the first year 
after potting, for the strength of the tree goes to form short 
fruit - branches ; but after the trees are well rooted, strong 
shoots are sent out in summer. Summer pruning consists 
mainly in pinching back these strong shoots to six or seven 
leaves each. If after this first stopping they grow out 
again, they are again pinched -back. On the leading 
branches, side -shoots that are not needed to fill empty 
spaces or make new leaders, are stopped at the third leaf. 
The sour cherries, which form young buds better on the 
side -shoots, might be pruned less. Much winter pruning 
is not needed for trees that have been well stopped in sum- 
mer. Winter pruning must be done as soon as leaf and 
bloom-buds can be distinguished. It is done upon the same 
principle as outdoor pruning, but as the room in orchard- 



384 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

houses is limited, all growth must soon be pruned into fruit- 
branches. 

"After the cherries are all gathered, the trees are plunged 
outside in a sunny, sheltered place, and left there until 
repotting time in October or November. Trees that have 
been potted but one year seldom need larger pots at this 
time, so two or three inches of the top soil in their pots is 
taken out and replaced with fresh. Larger pots are given, 
in after years, when these young trees become root-bound 
and require them. Cherry trees ought to be repotted every 
other year." 

Various forms of training pot -grown goose- 
berries, as grown by James Veitch & Sons, 
Chelsea, England, are shown in Figs. 248, 249, 
250.* 

OTHER SPECIAL MODES OF TBAIIfING 

Plants are often trained so as to allow them to 
be bent to the gronnd in the fall, and covered for 
winter protection.t J. T. Macomber describes t 
the training of peach trees for this purpose, and 
I insert a part of the account as an example of 
this kind of training. The tree "should be planted 
where it is wanted to grow, and all branches must 
be cut off, leaving the central shoot, upon which 
allow onlj^ one bud to grow. The tree should be 
visited every week or two, and all branches that 



*These cuts are used by courtesy of "The Gardeners' Chronicle," 
where they appeared in the issue of July 31, 1897. 
fSee " Principles of Fruit Growing", Chap. I. 
t" American Garden," xi. 231. 




248. Pyramidal gooseberry plant. 



386 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 



have started on the new shoot should be broken 
off, taking care not to injure the leaf below it. 




249. Cup-shaped gooseberry. 250. Training of gooseberry. 

These little branches should not be allowed to get 
more than an inch or two long. The object is to 
get a long, slender cane without branches. Fig. 
251 shows a tree in training ; a a are the little 



LAYING -DOWN TREES 



387 



branches near the top that should be broken off. 

All those below them have been removed. About 
four or five weeks before frost may 
be expected, stop breaking off the 
branches, so as to allow the wood 
to ripen enough to stand the win- 
ter. On the approach of freezing 
weather, place a round block of 

Am 





252. The tree at bearing age. 



wood on the ground at the root of the tree, 
and slowly bend the cane down over it and 
fasten there with a hooked stick driven into the 
ground. Then cover the cane with a couple of 
boards nailed together to form a trough. 

"When frost is out of the ground in spring, 
remove the covering and straighten up the tree. 



388 SOME SPECIFIC MODES OF TRAINING 

After it has begun to grow, cut or rub off all the 
branches and allow but one bud to grow, and treat 




253. Inarched elms. 



the tree just as you did the previous season. At 
the end of the third season you will probably have 
a cane long enough for your purpose. Now the 



INARCHING 389 

tree should not be lifted iu the spring, but is 
kept in a horizontal position and allowed to 
grow at the end and form a head, which should 
be trained fan- shaped and parallel with the hori- 
zontal trunk (Fig. 252). 

"There should be a soft pad of straw or cloth 
between the tree trunk and the block. On the 
approach of freezing weather, loosen the tree from 
the supporting stake, and after having placed 
some evergreen boughs on boards on the ground 
to keep the twigs off the earth, bend the head of 
the tree down side wise to the ground, weight it, 
if necessary, and then cover the whole head with 
boards." The trunk will be flexible enough to 
allow the head to be laid down every winter. 
Protect the trunk from sun- scald. 

Trees and branches may be made to grow to- 
gether in various fantastic ways if they are securely 
bound to each other. The union takes place more 
rapidly if the bark is removed from the conjoined 
surface and the exposed parts of the wounds 
covered with wax. This is a species of inarching. 
However, simply binding together young branches 
will cause them to unite, if the parts are in very 
intimate contact and if they cannot move upon 
each other when shaken by wind. Fig. 253 shows 
an arch made by binding four elms together. 



Chaptee VII 



AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING — 
GENERAL SKETCH 

Pruning and training the grape are perplexed 
questions, even to those who have spent a life- 
time in grape- growing. The perplexity arises from 
several diverse sources, as the early effort to trans- 
plant European methods, the fact that many 
systems present almost equally good results for 
particular purposes and varieties, and the failure 
to comprehend the fundamental principles of the 
operations. 

It is sufficient condemnation of European meth- 
ods, when applied in eastern America, to say that 
the American grapes are distinct species from the 
European grapes, and that, consequently, they are 
different in habit. This fact does not appear to 
have been apprehended clearly by the early Ameri- 
can grape -growers, even after the native varieties 
had begun to gain prominence. American viti- 
culture, aside from that upon the Pacific slope, 
which is concerned with the European grape, is 
an industry of very recent development. It was 
little more than a century ago that the first Ameri- 
can variety gained favor, and so late as 1823 that 

(390) 



EVOLUTION OF GRAPE TRAINING 



391 



the first definite attempt was made in Adkim's 
"Memoir on the Cultivation of the Vine in Amer- 
ica/' to record the merits of native grapes for 
purposes of cultivation.* Even Adlum's book 
was largely given to a discussion of European 
varieties and practices. In 1846 "Thomas' Fruit 
Culturist" mentioned only six "American hardy 
varieties," and all of these, excepting the Catawba, 
are practically not in cultivation at the present 
time. The Concord appeared in 1853. American 
grape training is, therefore, a very recent develop- 
ment, and we are only now 
outgrowing the influence 
of the practices early im- 
ported from Europe. The 
first decided epoch in the 
evolution of our grape 
training was the appear- 
ance of Fuller's "Grape 
Culturist," in 1864 ; f or ^^ 
while the system which he 
depicted, and which yet 
often bears his name, was 
but a modification of 
European methods, and 
had been outlined by earlier American writers, it 
was at that time placed clearly and cogently before 




254. The first American 

pictures of grape pruning 

and training. 



*Persoiis who are interested in the historical development of American 
grape-growing, may consult the author's "Sketch of the Evolution of our 
Native Fruits." 




tfcale' 



255. The first American pictures of grape priming and training. 1806. 



EVOLUTION OF GRAPE TRAINING 393 

the public, and became an accepted practice. The 
fundamental principles of pruning are alike for 
both European and American grapes, but the de- 
tails of pruning and training must be greatly 
modified for different species. We must under- 
stand at the outset that American species of 
grapes demand an American system of treatment. 

The earliest American pictures of grape training 
of which I know are those in S. W. Johnson's 
^' Rural Economy," published at New Brunswick, 
New Jersey, in 1806. These pictures are here re- 
produced full size (Figs. 254, 255). The successive 
figures illustrate the events in the pruning. Fig. 1 
shows the growth of the first year and Fig. 2 the 
first pruning. Fig. 3, the second year's growth, 
is pruned to the condition shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 6 
shows the training, the bearing canes being sup- 
ported on the main stake and the growing or re- 
newal canes on intermediate stakes. Figs. 7-12 
show the system of renewal. To one familiar 
with grape training, these various pictures sug- 
gest European patterns . 

John Adlum, of the District of Columbia, ap- 
pears to have been the first person to systemati- 
cally undertake the cultivation and amelioration 
of the native grapes. His method of training, as 
described in 1823, is as follows: One shoot is 
allowed to grow the first year, and this is cut 
back to two buds the first fall. The second year 
two shoots are allowed to grow, and they are tied 



394 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 

to "two stakes fixed down to the side of each 
plant, abont five or six feet high ; " in the fall 
each cane is cut back to three or four buds. In 
the third spring, these two short canes are spread 
apart "so as to make an angle of about forty -five 
degrees with the stem," and are tied to stakes ; 




256. Dufour's trellis training. 182G. 

this season about two shoots are allowed to grow 
from each branch, making four in all, and in the 
fall the outside ones are cut back to three or four 
buds, and the inner ones to two. These outside 
shoots are to bear the fruit the fourth year, and 
the inside ones give rise to renewal canes. These 
two outer canes or branches are secured to two 
stakes set about sixteen inches ^upon either side 
of the vine, and the shoots are tied up to the 
stake as they grow. The renewal shoots from 
the inside stubs are tied to a third stake set near 



EARLY TYPES OF TRAINING 395 

the root of the vine. The outside branches are to 
be cut away entirely at the end of the fourth year. 
This is an ingenious renewal post system, and it 
is easy to see how the Horizontal Arm and High 
Renewal systems may have sprung from it. 




257. Dufour's sketch of training on mulberry trees, suggested 
by European practice. 1826. 

The next important account appears to be that 
of John James Dufour, who wrote the "American 
Vine -Dresser's Guide" in 1826. Dufour published 
the second pictures of grape-training, two of which 
are here reproduced (Figs. 256, 257). A part of 
Dufour's sketch will interest us: 



396 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 

" Now for bowers and espaliers or hedgerows : Any way 
a vine is trained on the lattice work as to furnish regularly 
the wall for an espalier, and top of a bower, answers the 
purpose. But as the sap of plants, and of grape vines par- 
ticularly, always tends to run upwards, it will happen that 
a vine which is to give branches at different heights, the 
uppermost of all will shoot overgrown branches of the 
lowest part, which will be always weak; therefore, if a 
high wall or a large bower in a garden is to be covered with 
an espalier of vines, the wall or bower must be divided in 
sections, that one vine may furnish wood enough to fill one 
story in that section; say from fifteen to thirty feet long, 
according to the force of the ground. The height of one 
story being about three feet; a wall of eighteen feet high 
and fifty feet long would offer two sections, and five 
stories, also it would require ten vines to furnish it; one 
per story in each section ; then five vines, or as many as 
there are stories must be planted before each section, not 
close to the wall or bower, but four or five feet from it ; and 
when the vines are strong enough to be laid as directed for 
vines planted by mulberry trees, they are to be laid down 
in the same way, nine or twelve inches deep, and raised 
against the wall or bower, and pruned to three eyes : Vines 
planted immediately where they are to grow would perhaps 
do as well; but I have done myself and seen it done the 
other way. It is supposed that a vine which is to nourish 
more branches and more fruit than one in a vineyard, will 
be stronger if it runs some space into the ground, it will 
surely shoot more roots from the stock; but I think any 
plant will get roots in proportion to the branches it has to 
nourish: also, I do not think that it is absolutely necessary 
to plant them first at a distance from a wall or a bower, 
but it is surely better to do it against a tree, on account of 
the roots of the tree, which keeps the ground very dry 
within their reach ; it is best, however, to do it always 
when it can be done most conveniently. After the vines 



dufour's training 397 

have acquired the proper strength, they are to be trained 
along the laths, so that one vine should furnish one story- 
only, or that all its branches should shoot on a horizontal 
line, and nowhere else. (See Fig. 256.) The vine in the 
left edge of the section being brought up twelve or fifteen 
inches perpendicular to the lowest lath, there it must be 
bent square to the right, and tied to the lath as far as the 
other edge of the section. If that do not give too great 
a load to the vine, every foot along the lath, a bud must be 
left to grow, and the vine is full loaded with twelve or 
fifteen growing buds, so that a lath twenty-five feet long 
will require two or three years to fill it, without overloading 
the plaint. The next vine being brought up perpendicular, 
three feet higher to the second lath, and there bent and 
tied along the lath about as the first one; there may be 
also twelve or fifteen buds to grow, one being left at each 
foot ; all the buds in that part of the vines which are per- 
pendicular, must be rubbed off except one or two just under 
the elbow where the lath in that section has to be filled up 
with a next year's shoot, when the vine of one story has 
reached the boundary of the section, there it must be 
stopped. The next vine, or the third, must go up first to 
the third lath, and so on until the middle of the section, 
where, after having brought the vine up to its lath, it must 
be then bent to the left, having there more room. To have 
a perfect espalier or bower, it requires much nursing until 
the wall or bower is completely filled, then you will have a 
horn every foot along each lath except the top one, which 
must be left naked, that you may tie to it the sprouts of 
the story under it. This horn must be made anew every 
year, by the pruning, as directed for the festoons between 
the mulberry trees, and what grows from them must be 
suckered and tied to the lath above, and may be pinched a 
couple of feet higher up. What grows on the top or roof 
of a bower, may be left to grow at liberty after it has been 
pruned. An espalier of vines thus trained cover a wall or a 



398 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 

bower most beautifully, and bears abundance of grapes, 
which come to fine perfection and make a noble appearance ; 
every exposure I expect would answer in this country ; the 
southwest is the exposure that I saw grapes come first to 
maturity. There is in Swisserland such an espalier in full 
perfection, thirty feet high, on the side of a large barn, 
planted there by myself thirty five years since." 

The sketch in Fig. 256 " shows a piece of an espalier or 
hedgerow. Letter L the laths ; b the horns to be renewed 
yearly; h the horizontal branches. At the lower lath as it 
appears immediately after the training of it. Along the 
next lath above, shows the horns made the subsequent prun- 
ings." Fig. 257 "represents two mulberry trees and vines 
trained from tree to tree — letter h the main horizontal 
branches — L the lath — m the trees — b the horns to be 
renewed every year, and what will grow from them will 
often hang as shown by the branch with leaves and 
fruit on." 

The great diversity of opinion which exists 
among the best grape - growers concerning the ad- 
vantages of different systems of training is proof 
that many systems have merit, and that no one 
system is better than others for all purposes. The 
grower must recognize the fact that the most im- 
portant factor in determining the merits of any 
system of training is the habit of the vine — as its 
vigor, rate of growth, normal size, relative size and 
abundance of leaves, and season and character of 
fruit. Nearly every variety differs from others 
in some particular habit, and it therefore requires 
different treatment in some important detail. 
Varieties may thrive equally well upon the same 



NEED OF INSTRUCTION 399 

general system of training, but require minor 
modifications ; so it comes that no hard and fast 
lines can be laid down, either for any system or 
any variety. One system differs from another in 
some one main principle or idea, but the modifi- 
cations of all may meet and blend. If two men 
practice the Knifiin system, therefore, this fact 
does not indicate that they prune and train their 
vines exactly alike. It is impossible to formulate 
rules for grape - training ; it is, therefore, im- 
portant that we understand thoroughly the phi- 
losophy of pruning and training, both in general 
and in the different systems which are now most 
popular. 

These Chapters (VII. and VIII.) on grape train- 
ing are a revision of my "American Grape Train- 
ing," published by the Rural Publishing Company 
in 1893. The motive of the book was thus set 
forth in the preface : " This little book has grown 
out of an attempt to teach the principles and 
methods of grape training to college students. I 
have found such teaching to be exceedingly diffi- 
cult and unsatisfactory. It is impossible to firmly 
impress the lessons by mere lectures. The student 
must apprehend the principles slowly and by his 
own effort. He must have time to thoroughly 
assimilate them before he attempts to apply them. 
I therefore cast about for books which I could 
put before my class, but I at once found that 
there are very few succinct accounts of the sub- 



400 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 

ject of grape pruning and training, and that none 
of our books portray the methods which are most 
largely practised in the large grape regions of the 
east. My only recourse, therefore, was to put my 
own notes into shape for print, and this I have 
now done. And inasmuch as all grape- growers 
are students, I hope that the simple account will 
find a use beyond the class-room. 

"This lack of adequate accounts of grape train- 
ing at first astonished me, but is not strange after 
all. It must be remembered that the cultivation 
of the native grape is of very recent origin. 
There are many men who can remember its begin- 
ning in a commercial way. It seldom occurs to 
the younger generation, which is familiar with the 
great vineyards in many states, that the Concord 
is yet scarcely forty years old, and that all grape- 
growing in eastern America is yet in an experi- 
mental stage. Progress has been so rapid in 
recent years that the new methods outstrip the 
books. The old horizontal arm spur system, 
which is still the chief method in the books, has 
evolved itself into a high renewal training, which 
is widely used, but which has not found its way 
into the manuals. The Knif&n type has outgrown 
its long period of incubation, and is now taking 
an assured place in vineyard management. So 
two great types, opposed in method, are now con- 
tending for supremacy, and they will probably 
form the basis of all future developments. This 



THE CONFUSED IDEALS' 401 

evolution of American grape training is one of 
the most unique and signal developments of our 
modern horticulture, and its very recent departure 
from the early doubts and trials is a fresh illus- 
tration of the youth and virility of all horticul- 
tural pursuits in North America. 

"This development of our grape -training should 
form the subject of a historical inquiry. I have 
not attempted such in this little hand-book. I 
have omitted all reference to the many early 
methods, which were in most cases transportations 
or modifications of European practices, for their 
value is now chiefly historical, and their insertion 
here would only confuse the reader. I have at- 
tempted nothing more than a plain account of 
the methods now in use ; in fact, I am aware that 
I have not accomplished even this much, for there 
are various methods which I have not mentioned. 
But these omitted forms are mostly of local use 
or adaptation, and they are usually only modifi- 
cations of the main types here explained. It is 
impossible to describe all the variations in grape 
training in a book of pocket size ; neither is it 
necessary. Nearly every grower who has given 
grape raising careful attention has introduced into 
his own vineyard some modifications which he 
thinks are of special value to him. There are 
various curious and instructive old books to which 
the reader can go if he desires to know the history 
and evolution of grape training in America. He 



402 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 

will find that we have now passed through the 
long and costly experiment with European sys- 
tems ; and we have also outgrown the gross or 
long -wood styles, and now prune close, with the 
expectation of obtaining superior and definite re- 
sults."* 

PBUNING THE GBAPE 

Pruning and training are terms which are 
often confounded when speaking of the grape, 
but they represent distinct operations. Pruning 
refers to such removal of branches as shall in- 
sure better and larger fruit on the remaining 
portions. Training refers to the disposition of 
the different parts of the vine. It is true that 
different methods of training demand different 
styles of pruning, but the modification in prun- 
ing is only such as shall adapt it to the external 



*In the original edition, all tlie maniiscript was read by three persons 
—by George C. Snow, Penn Yan, N. Y. ; William D. Barns, Middle Hope, 
N. Y., and L. C. Corbett, my assistant in the Cornell Experiment Station 
at that time, but now professor of horticultui'e in West Virginia. Mr. 
Snow is a grower in the lake region of Western New York, and employs 
the High Renewal system; Mr. Barns is a grower in the Htidson River 
Valley, and practices the Kniffin system; while Mr. Corbett has been a 
student of all the systems, and has practiced two or three of them in 
commercial plantations. In this revision, I have been greatly aided by 
John W. Spencer, Westfield, N. Y., one of the representative grape- 
growers of the famous Chautanq.ua district. To these persons is to be 
attributed very much of any value which the book may possess. 

The reader will find a good account of grape training by the late 
E. G. Lodeman, in Year-Book of the Department of Agriculture for 1896. 
For southern conditions he should consult Starnes' "Grape Culture," 
BuU. 28. Ga. Exp. Sta. 



HOW THE FRUIT IS BORNE 



403 



shape and size of the vine, and does not in any 
way affect the principle npon which it rests. 
Pruning is a necessity, and, in essence, there is 
but one method ; training is largely a conven- 




258. Grape shoot.. 



ience, and there are as many modes as there 
are fancies among grape -growers. 

All intelligent pruning of the grape rests upon 
the fact that the fruit is home in a fetv dusters 
near the base of the growing shoots of the season, 
and which spring from wood of last yearns growth. 



404 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 

It should be said here that a growing, leafy 
branch of the grape vine is called a shoot; a 
ripened shoot is called a cane ; a branch or trunk 
two or more years old is called an arm. 

A shoot, as it appears in the northern states in 
June, is shown in Fig, 258 » The whole shoot 
has grown within a month, from a bud. As it 
grew, flower clusters appeared, and these are to 
bear the grapes. Flowering is now past, but the 
shoot will continue to grow, perhaps, to the 
length of ten or twenty feet. At picking time, 
therefore, the grapes all hang near the lower end 
or base of the shoots or new canes, as in Fig. 
259 and Fig. 52, page 65. In Fig. 259, the old 
cane was cut at A. Then a shoot started from a 
bud at B and grew beyond BB, and another 
shoot sprung from the uppermost bud. 

Each bud on the old cane, therefore, produces 
a new [cane which may bear fruit as well as 
leaves. At the close of the season, this long ri- 
pened shoot or cane has produced a bud every 
foot or less, from which new fruit -bearing shoots 
are to spring next year. But if all these buds 
were allowed to remain, the vine would be over- 
taxed with fruit the coming year, and the crop 
would be a failure. The cane is, therefore, cut 
off until it bears only as many buds as experi- 
ence has taught us the vine should carrj^ The 
cane may be cut back to five or ten buds, and 
perhaps some of these buds will be removed, or 



HOW THE FRUIT IS BORNE 



405 



"rubbed off," next spring if the young growth 
seems to be too thick, or if the plant is weak. 
Each shoot will bear, on an average, two or 
three clusters. Some shoots will bear no clus- 




259. The bearing wood. 



ters. From one to six of the old canes, each 
bearing from five to ten buds, are left each 
spring. The number of clusters which a vine 
can carry well depends upon the variety, the age 
and size of the vine, the style of the training, 
and the soil and cultivation. Experience is the 



406 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 

only guide. A strong vine of Concord, which is 
a prolific variety, trained in any of the ordinary 
systems and set nine or ten feet apart each way, 
will usually carry from thirty to sixty clusters. 
The clusters will weigh from a fourth to a half 
pound each. Twelve or fifteen pounds of mar- 
ketable grapes is a fair or average crop for such 
a Concord vine, and twenty -five pounds is a very 
heavy crop. 

The pruning of the grape vine, therefore, is 
essentially a thinning process. In the winter 
pruning all the canes of the last season's growth 
are cut away except two to six, which are left 
to make the fruit and wood of the next year ; 
and each of these remaining canes is headed - 
back to three to ten buds. The number and 
length of the canes which are left after the prun- 
ing depend upon the style of training which is 
practiced. A vine which may completely cover a 
trellis in the fall will be cut back so severely that 
a novice will fear that the plant is ruined. But 
the operator bears in mind the fact that the grape, 
unlike the apple, pear and peach, does not bear 
distinct fruit -buds in the fall, but buds which 
produce both fruit and wood the following season. 

Let us now suppose, therefore, that we have 
pruned our vine in the fall of 1891 to two canes, 
each bearing ten buds (Fig. 260). We will call 
these canes A and B respectively. In 1892, there- 
fore, twenty shoots grew from them, and each of 



HOW MANY BUDS TO LEAVE 



407 



these shoots or new canes branches, or produces 
laterals. We will call these new canes of 1892 
Al, A2, A3, Bl, B2, and so on. Each of the new 
canes bears at the base about two clusters of 
grapes, giving a total yield of about forty clus- 
ters. These clusters stand opposite the leaves, as 



Bio b9 b8 b7 b6 b5 b4 b3b2bIc 



D Al a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 a8 a9 AlO 




260. Diagram to illustrate pruning. 

seen in Fig. 258. In the axil of each leaf a bud 
is formed which will produce a cane, and perhaps 
fruit, in 1893. If each of these new canes, Al, 
A2, etc., produces ten buds — which is a moderate 
number — the vine would go into the winter of 
1892-3 with two hundred buds for the next year's 
growth and crop ; but these buds should be re- 
duced to about twenty, as they were in the fall of 
1891. That is, every year we go back again to 
the same number of buds, and the top of the vine 



408 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 

gets no larger from year to year. We must, 
therefore, cut back again to two canes. We cut 
back each of these original canes, A and B, to 
one new cane. That is, we leave only Al and 
Bl, cutting oif A2, A3, etc., and B2, B3, etc. 
This brings the vine back to very nearly its con- 
dition in the fall of 1891 ; but the new canes, Al 
and Bl, which are now to become the main canes 
by being bent down horizontally, were borne at 
some distance — say three or four inches — from the 
base of the original canes, A and B, so that the 
permanent part of the vine is constantly' lengthen- 
ing itself. This annually lengthening portion is 
called a spur. Spurs are rarely or never made in 
this exact position, however, although this dia- 
grammatic sketch illustrates clearly the method 
of their formation. The common method of spur- 
ring is that connected with the horizontal arm 
system of training, in which the arms A and B 
are allowed to become permanent, and the up- 
right canes, Al, A2, Bl, B2, B3, etc., are cut back 
to within two or three buds of these arms each 
year. The cane Al, for instance, is cut back in 
the fall of 1892 to two or three buds, and in 1893 
two or three canes will grow from this stub. In 
the fall of 1893 only one cane is left after the 
pruning, and this one is cut back to two or three 
buds; and so on. 

Thus the spur grows higher every year, although 
every effort is made to keep it short, both by re- 



THE SPUR 409 

ducing the number of buds to one or two and by 
endeavoring to bring out a cane lower down on 
the spur ever}^ few years. Fig. 261 shows a short 
spur of two years' standing. The horizontal por- 
tion shows the permanent arm. The first upright 
part is the remains of the first -year cane, and 
the upper part is the second -year cane after it 
is cut back in the fall. In this 
instance, the cane is cut back to 
one fruiting -bud, &, the small 
buds, a a, being rubbed out. 
There are serious objections to* 
spurs in any position. They be- 
come hard and comparatively life- 
less after a time ; it is often diffi- 
cult to replace them by 
healthy, fresh wood; and 
the bearing portion of the 
vine is constantly reced- 26I. Spur 

ing from the main trunk. 
The bearing wood should spring from near the 
central parts of the vine, or be kept "near the 
head," as the grape -growers say. In order to 
do this, it is customary to allow two canes to 
grow out each year back of the canes Al and Bl 
(Fig. 260), or from the head of the vine; these 
canes may be designated C and D. 

These canes, C and D, are grown during 1892 — 
when they may bear fruit like other canes — for 
the sole purpose of forming the basis of the bear- 




410 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 

ing top in 1893, while all the old top, A and B, 
with the secondary canes, Al, A2, Bl, B2, B3, 
etc., is cut entirely away. 

Here, then, are two distinct methods of forming 
the bearing top for the succeeding year: either 
from spurs, which are the remains of the previous 
top ; or from renewals, which are taken each year 




262. Renewal pruning. 



from the old wood near the head of the vine, or 
even from the ground. Renewals from the ground 
are now little used, however, for they seldom give 
a sufficient crop unless they are headed -in the first 
fall and are allowed to bear the second year. It 
should be borne in mind that the spur and renewal 
methods refer entirely to pruning, not to training, 
for either one can be used in any system of train- 
ing. Spur pruning, however, is growing in dis- 
favor among commercial grape -growers, and 
renewal is more or less used in all systems of 
training. 



RENEWAL 411 

Renewal pruning is illustrated in Fig. 262. 
This engraving shows the head of a vine seven 
years old, and on which two canes are allowed 
to remain after each annual pruning. The part 
extending from h to f and d is the base of the 
bearing cane of 1892. In the winter of 1892-3, 
this cane is cut off at d, and the new cane, e, is 
left to make the bearing wood of 1893. Another 
cane sprung from /, but it was too weak to leave 
for fruiting. It was, therefore, cut away. The 
old stub, h, f, d, will be cut away a year hence, in 
the winter of 1893-4. In the meantime, a re- 
newal cane will have grown from the stub c, which 
is left for that purpose, and the old cane, h d, will 
be cut off just beyond it, between c and /. In 
this way, the bearing wood is kept close to the 
head of the vine. The wound a shows where an 
old stub was cut away this winter, 1892-3, while & 
shows where one was cut off the previous winter. 
A scar upon the back of the head, which does not 
show in the illustration, marks the spot where a 
stub was cut away two years ago, in the winter 
of 1890-1. This method of pruning can be kept 
up almost indefinitely, and if care is exercised in 
keeping the stubs short, the head will not enlarge 
out of proportion to the growth of the stock or 
trunk. 

Pruning young vines. — The time required 
after planting to get the vine onto the wires or 
trellis varies with the strength of the vin»e when 



412 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 

set, the variety, the soil and cultivation, and the 
system of training ; but, as a rule, the training 
begins the second or third year, previous to which 
time the vine is pruned, not trained. Two - year - 
old vines are most popular for planting, although 
in the strong varieties, as Concord and Niagara, 
well -grown yearling vines are probably as good, 
if not better. The strong -growing kinds are 
commonly set from eight to ten feet apart in the 
row, and the rows eight or nine feet apart. Dela- 
wares and other small vines may be set closer, 
although eight feet is preferable. When set, the 
vine is cut back to two or three buds. During 
the first year, the young canes are usually allowed 
to lie upon the ground at will, as seen in Fig. 
263. In the fall or winter, all the canes but one 
are cut off, and this one is cut back to two or 
three buds. The vine is, therefore, no larger at 
the expiration of a year's growth than it was 
when planted ; but in the meantime the plant has 
become thoroughly established in the soil, and the 
second year's growth should be strong enough to 
form the basis for the permanent trunk or arm. 
If, however, the second year's growth is weak, it 
may be cut back as before, and the third season's 
growth used for the trunk. On the other hand, 
the growth of the first year is sometimes carried 
onto the wires to form the permanent trunk and 
arms, but it is only with extra strong vines in 
good soil that this practice is admissible. From 



WHEN TO PRUNE GRAPES 



413 



this point, the treatment of the vine is discussed 
under Training (Chapter VIII.). 

When to prune. — Grape vines may be pruned 
at any time during the winter. It is the practice 




among most grape-growers in the North to prune 
as time permits from November to late in Feb- 
ruary, or even early in March. The sap flows 
very freely from cuts made in spring and early 
summer, causing the phenomenon known as 
"bleeding," or in Europe as "weeping," and in 
order to prevent this loss, pruning is stopped six 



414 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 

weeks or more before the time at which the buds 
usually swell. It is yet a moot point if this 
bleeding injures the vine, but it is a safe practice 
to prune early. The vine is cut off an inch or 
two beyond the last bud which it is desired to 
leave, in order to avoid injury to the bud from 
the drying-out of the end of the cane. 

The pruning is done with small hand pruning- 
shears. The canes are often allowed to remain 
tied to the wires until the pruning is accom- 
plished, although it is the practice with most 
growers who use the Knif&n system to cut the 
strings before pruning. The removal of the 
severed canes is known as "stripping." In large 
vineyards, the pruner sometimes leaves the strip- 
ping to boys or other cheap labor. The stripping 
may be done at any time after the pruning is per- 
formed, until spring. It must be done before the 
growth starts on the remaining parts of the 
vine, however, to avoid injury to the young buds 
when tearing the vines off the trellis. 

Summer pruning. — There is much discussion 
as to the advisability of summer pruning. It is 
essential to the understanding of the question that 
the grower bear in mind that this summer prun - 
ing is of two kinds — the removal or "breaking- 
out" of the superfluous shoots, and heading -in 
or "stopping" the main canes to keep them within 
limits. The superfluous shoots are such as spring 
from small, weak buds, or those which break from 



SUMMER PRUNING 415 

the old arms or trunk of the vine. Shoots which 
start from the very base of the old cane are usu- 
ally weak, and should be removed. Buds in this 
position are shown at a a, in Fig. 261. The sec- 
ondary or axillary branches, which often start 
from the base of the season's shoots, should be 
removed or broken out. These superfluous shoots 
are pulled off from time to time as they appear, 
or the buds may be rubbed off before the shoots 
begin to grow. 

The heading -in of the main canes, while desir- 
able for the purpose of keeping the vine within 
bounds, is apt to cause a growth of laterals which 
choke up the vine, and which do not mature, and 
in those styles of training in which very little 
wood is allowed to grow, the practice may pre- 
vent the development of a sufficient amount of 
leaf surface to properly sustain the vine. Vines 
are often weakened by summer pruning. These 
dangers can be overcome by careful attention, 
however, especially by heading-in very lightly, and 
by doing it as late in the season as possible, when 
new lateral growth does not start readily. The 
necessity of much heading-in has been largely 
obviated in late years by the adoption of high and 
drooping systems of training, and by setting the 
vines far apart. The strong varieties, like Con- 
cord, Brighton and Niagara, should be set ten 
feet apart in the row, especially if grown upon 
the Kniffin system. Catawba, being a very up- 



416 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 

right grower, and especially well adapted to 
upright training, may be set eight feet apart, and 
Delawares are often set as close as six or eight 
feet. It is doubtful, however, if any variety 
should be set less than eight feet apart for trellis 
culture. In Virginia and southward, where the 
growth is large because of the long seasons, vines 
are often set more than ten feet apart. In the 
South, the rows should run north and south, that 
the fruit may be shaded from midday sun. The 
only summer heading -in now generally recom- 
mended is the clipping of the tips when they fall 
over and begin to touch the ground. This clip- 
ping is often done with a sickle or sharp corn- 
e utter. 

MAKING THE TRELLIS 

The fall or winter following the planting of the 
vineyard, the trellis is begun if the upright sys- 
tems are used (see Chapter VIII.) ; but this opera- 
tion is usually delayed a year longer in the Kniffin 
systems, and stakes are commonly used, or at 
least recommended, during the second season. In 
the South the trellis is made the first year. The 
style of trellis will depend upon the style of train- 
ing, but the main features are the same for all. 

Strong posts of some durable timber, as cedar, 
locust or oak, are placed at such distance apart 
that two vines can be set between each two. If 
the vines are set nine feet apart, the posts may be 



VINEYARD POSTS 



417 



eighteen or twenty feet apart, and a vine will then 
stand four or five feet from each post. If the 
posts in the row are eighteen feet apart and the 
rows eight feet apart, about three hundred and 
thirty posts will be required to the acre. Except 
in very hard and stony lands, the posts are driven 




264. A poor way of bracing the post. 



with a heavy maul, although many people prefer 
to set the end posts in holes, thinking that they 
endure the strain better. In all loose soils, how- 
ever, posts can be made as firm by driving as by 
setting with a spade. All posts should be as firm 
as possible, in order to hold up the heavy loads of 
vines and fruit. In setting posts on hillsides, it 
is a common practice to lean them slightly uphill, 
for there is always a tendency for the posts to tilt 
down the slope. For the Kniffin systems, es- 
pecially for the strong -growing grapes, the posts 
must stand six or six and one -half feet high when 



AA 



418 



AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 



set, but a foot less will usually be sufficient for 
the upright and horizontal systems. The posts 
should stand higher at first than is necessary for 
the support of the wires, for they will need to be 
driven down occasionally as they become loose. 
The end posts of each row should be well braced, 





265. Bracing the end post. 



as shown in Figs. 289, 290. A stjde of brace 
which is sometimes recommended, is to anchor the 
post to a stone, as in Fig. 264, but this is imprac- 
ticable. Fig. 265 illustrates the bracing of fence 
posts, of which the Prairie Farmer says: "The 
usual way of bracing, shown in the upper figure, 
is faulty, the brace being too high up on the post 
and standing too vertical. It should rest nearly 
against the center of strain on the post and more 
nearly in a horizontal position, as shown in the 
lower figure. A wire connecting the top of the 



WIRE FOR THE TRELLIS 419 

second post with the bottom of the end post pre- 
vents the brace from pushing it over." 

It is only a question of time when iron posts 
will come into general use. Second-hand steam- 
pipe could no doubt be used. Iron posts are not 
only more durable, but they do not harbor insects 
and fungi. 

The wire ordinarily used is No. 12, except for 
the top wire in the Kniffln training, which is usu- 
ally No. 10, as the greater part of the weight is 
then upon the top wire. No. 9 is sometimes used, 
but it is often heavier than necessary. No. 14 is 
occasionally used for the middle and upper rows in 
the upright systems, but it is not strong enough. 
The following figures show the sizes and weights 
of these and similar iron and steel wires: 



No. 


Diameter in inches. 


Weight of 100 feet. 


Feet in 2,000 pounds 


9 


.148 


5.80 pounds. 


34,483 


10 


.135 


4.83 


41,408 


11 


.120 


3.82 


52,356 


12 


.105 


2.92 " 


68,493 


13 


.092 


2.24 


89,286 


14 


.080 


1.69 


118,343 


15 


.072 


1.37 " 


145,985 


16 


.063 


1.05 


190,476 



The plain annealed iron wire costs about three 
cents per pound, and the galvanized — which is 
less used for vineyards — three and one -half cents. 
Of No. 12 wire, about one hundred and sixty 
pounds is required per acre for a single run on 
rows eight feet apart, and about five hundred 



420 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 

pounds for three runs. The cost of No. 12 wire 
per acre, for three runs, therefore, is about fifteen 
dollars. 

The wire is secured to the intermediate posts by 
staples driven in firmly, so that the wire will not 
pull through readily of its own weight, but still 
loosely enough to allow of the tightening of the 
wires. In other words, the head of the staple 
should not quite touch the wire. Grape staples 
are of three lengths, about an inch, inch and a- 
quarter, and an inch and a-half respectively. The 
shortest length is little used. The medium length 
is used for hard -wood posts and the longest for 
soft posts, like chestnut and cedar. These staples 
cost five cents per pound, usually, and a pound of 
the medium length contains from ninety to one 
hundred of the No. 10 wire size. An acre, for 
three wires, will therefore require, for this size, 
about nine or ten pounds of staples. In windy 
regions, the wires should be placed on the wind- 
ward side of the posts, and on hillsides it should 
be on the up-hill side. 

There are several devices on the market for 
stretching the wires on a trellis, such as the 
^'come-alongs" used by linemen and fence build- 
ers. The one commonly used in the Chautauqua 
district of New York is shown in Fig. 266. The 
hook is secured to the post, and the wire is held 
in the clamp or jaws at the opposite end. The 
operator pulls the rope, and when the wire is 



266. Wire stretcher. 




267. Parallel wire stretcher. 




268. Parallel wire stretchers in operation, the slack being pulled 
up by the strap. 




269. Westfield grip. 



422 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 

taut, slips the rope in the catch at a. The loose 
end of the wire is then secured to the post, and 
the machine is removed. Other forms of "come- 
alongs" are shown in Figs. 267, 268, 269.* 

There are various means of securing the wires 
to the end posts, but the commonest method is to 
wind them about the post once and secure them 
with a staple, or twist the end of the wire back 
upon itself, forming a loop. The wires should be 
drawn taut to prevent sagging with the weight of 
fruit and leaves. In order to allow for the con- 
traction of the wires in winter, some growers 
loosen the wires after harvest, and others provide 
some device which will relieve the strain. The 
Yeomans patent grape-vine trellis is a simple 
and effective lever -contrivance attached to each 
wire, and which is operated to loosen the wires 
in fall and to tighten them in spring. The end 
post is sometimes provided upon the back with a 
square -headed pin which works tightly in an inch 
and a -half auger hole, and about which the end 
of the wire is wound. A square -headed iron 
wrench operates the pin, while the tension of the 
wire around the side of the post keeps the pin 
from slipping. This device is not durable, how- 
ever. An ingenious man can easily contrive some 
device for relieving the tension, if he should think 
it necessary. As a matter of practice, however, 



*Manufactured by Eureka Tempered Copper Works, North East, 
Penna. 



CARE OF THE TRELLIS 



423 



the wires soon stretch and sag enough with the 
burden of fruit and vines to take up the winter 
contraction, and most growers do not release the 
wires in fall. It will be found necessary, in fact, 
to tighten the wires and to straighten up the posts 
from year to year, as they become loose. It is 
always a profitable 
labor to tam]D the 
ground firmly about 
all the posts ever}' 
spring. The wires 
should always be 
kept tight during the 
growing season, to 
prevent the whipping 
of the vines by the 
wind. This is espe- 
cially important in 

white grapes, which are discolored by the rubbing 
of leaves and twigs. Unless the vines are very 
strong, it will be necessary to put up only one wire 
the first winter. 

A German knack for taking up the slack is 
shown in Figs. 270 and 271. The device is made 
from heavy wire, and the trellis wire is caught 
up and wound about it, as seen in Fig. 271. A 
notch filed in either end of the device prevents it 
from slipping. 

Trellises are often made of slats, as shown in 
Fig. 256, but these are always less durable than 




270. 



Device for taking up the 
slack. 



424 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 

the wire trellises and niore expensive to keep in 
repair ; and in the older portions of the country, 
where timber is dear, they are also more expen- 
sive at the outset. They catch the wind, and, not 
being held together by continuous strands, are 
likely to blow down in sections. Fuller partic- 




271. The slack gathered up. 

ulars concerning the styles of trellis are given 
in the discussions of the different systems of 
training. 

Spencer gives the following supplementary ad- 
vice for the trellis and general lay-out of the 
vineyard : 

"The vineyardists of the Chautauqua grape belt have de- 
veloped a mode of pruning and training of grapes which 
has many features peculiar to that district. The trellis is 
made of two wires, of No. 9 or No. 10 gauge, and chestnut 
posts. The posts are from six feet to eight feet in length, 
and cost one cent per lineal foot at the railroad station. 
In later years, since experience has shown how important 
air and sunshine are in ripening the fruit, eight-foot posts 
are most commonly used. Grape posts should be somewhat 



LAYING OUT THE VINEYARD 425 

heavier than those commonly used for wire fence — from a 
third to a half larger — and the heaviest should be sorted 
out for the end posts, for these bear the strain of the wire. 
An experienced farmer need not be told that they should be 
sharpened with a true lead-pencil taper, excepting the 
crooked ones, which should be so beveled as to counteract 
the crook in driving. 

"The usual distance apart for the posts in the row of 
grapes is one post to every three vines, or, in other words, 
twenty- seven feet, and for ease in stretching the wire, they 
should be in as straight a line as possible. The posts are 
driven, but a hole should first be made by an unusually 
large crowbar with a bulb near the lower end. After the 
posts are stuck into the holes, they are most conveniently 
driven by the operator standing in a wagon which is hauled 
through the row by a horse. A fair weight of maul is 
twelve pounds, and it requires a good man to swing one of 
that size all day. Iron mauls are commonly used because 
they are the cheapest, but one with an iron shell filled with 
wood "brooms" or frays the top of the post less than the 
iron maul. Eighteen inches is a fair depth to drive the 
posts on most soils. If the proprietor delegates the driving 
to another man, he had better direct that twenty and 
twenty-two inches be the proper depth, for to the man 
swinging the maul the post seems deeper than it really is. 

"A vineyard should have a break or an alley at right 
angles to the rows as often as every fifty grape vines, for 
the purpose of dumping grape brush and shortening the 
trip when hauling fault. If the vineyard is in fair thrift, 
longer rows will give so much brush as to be inconvenient 
in hauling out. 

" The end posts should not only be the largest of the lot, 
but should also be well braced. The most common mode is 
the "hypotenuse brace," consisting of a stiff rail or a four- 
by-four scantling twelve feet long, with one end notched 
into the post about midway between the two wires, and the 



426 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 

other end resting on the ground against a two -foot peg of 
about the same size as the end post. 

"The wires (two wires in the Chautauqua trellis) should 
be strung on the windward side of the post ; that is, on the 
side from which the prevailing winds come . This is very- 
important when the wind is blowing at thirty to forty miles 
an hour, and the vines have sails of many square feet of 
foliage, and perhaps three and four tons of fruit per acre. 
The staples should be of the same gauge of wire as that 
used in barbed wire fences, but about one -half inch longer, 
unless the grape posts should be of hard wood like locust, 
then fence staples will be long enough. The bottom trellis 
wire is usually placed from twenty- eight to thirty-two 
inches from the ground. Owing to the arm system of 
pruning in the Chautauqua grape belt, the height of the 
lower trellis wire is permanent. The upper trellis wire is, 
in many instances, raised as the vineyard comes to ma- 
turity. The first year of fruiting, it may not be more than 
twenty -four inches above the lower wire, and year by year 
be raised to thirty and thirty-two inches. It is not ad- 
visable to go more than thirty- six inches apart without 
putting in a middle or third wire. Each spring many of the 
posts will sag, and the upper wire will be slack, and many 
of the braces will be out of place. All of these faults 
should be corrected just before tying up the canes." 

TYING 

Probably the best material for tying the canes 
and shoots to the trellis is raffia. This is a bast- 
like material which comes in skeins, and which can 
be bought of seedsmen and nurserymen for about 
twenty cents a pound. A pound will suffice to tie 
a quarter of an acre of upright training through- 
out the season. Raffia is obtained from the strip- 



TYING THE VINES 427 

pings of an oriental palm fBapMa BuffiaJ. Wool- 
twine is also still largely used for tying, but it is 
not so cheap and handy as raffia, and it usually 
has to be cut when the trellis is stripped at the 
winter pruiiing, while the raf&a breaks with a 
quick pull of the vine. Some complain that the 
raffia is not strong enough to hold the vine during 
the season, but it can easily be doubled. Osier 
willows are much used for tying up the old canes 
in the spring, and also for summer tying, espe- 
cially in the nursery regions where the slender 
trimmings of the cultivated osier willows are easily 
procured. Wild willows are often used if they 
can be obtained easily. These willows are tied 
up in a small bundle, which is held upon the back 
above the hips by a cord passed about the body. 
The butts project under the right hand, if the 
person is right-handed, and the strands are pulled 
out as needed. The butt is first used, the tie be- 
ing made with a twist and tuck, the strand is then 
cut off with a knife, and the twig is employed in 
like manner until it is used up. When wool- twine 
is used, the ball is often held in front of the work- 
man by a cord which is tied about it and then 
passed about the waist. The ball is unwound from 
the inside, and it will hold its shape until the end 
becomes so short that it will easily drag upon the 
ground. Some workmen carry the ball in a bag, 
after the manner of carrying seed-corn. Raffia is 
not so easily carried in the field as the wool -twine 



428 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 

or the willow, and this fact interferes with its 
popularity. Green rye straw, cut directly from 
the field, is much used for tying the shoots in 
summer. Small wire, about two -thirds the size 
of broom -wire, is used occasionally for tying up 
the canes in spring, but it must be used with care 
or it will injure the vine. Corn -husks are also 
employed for this purpose when they can be se- 
cured. Bass -bark is sometimes used for tying, 
but in most of the grape regions it is difficult to 
secure, and it has no advantage over raffia. 

It is very important that the old canes be tied 
up early in spring, for the buds are easily broken 
after they begin to swell. These canes are tied 
rather firmly to the wires to hold them steady ; 
but the growing shoots, which are tied during the 
summer, are fastened more loosely, to allow of the 
necessary increase in diameter. 

Further advice on tying is given by Spencer: 

"Tying is done by women, boys and girls and cheap 
men. The tying materials are wire, wool-twine, raffia, 
willow and carpet-rags. By turning to Fig. 278, it will be 
seen how the canes are arrayed on the two trellises after the 
Chautauqua method. The horizontal arms, at the lower 
wire, are more or less permanent, and they are loosely 
confined to the wire, always by string or willow. The 
vertical canes, which are fastened to the top trellis, are now 
universally tied with annealed wire of No. 18 gauge, and cut 
in lengths of four inches. The economy in using the wire 
is the despatch in tying, and the fact that the work can be 
done on cool days when light gloves are necessary. The 





272. Tying with wire. The first 
movement. 



273. The second movement. 




274. The third movement. 



275. The tie complete. 



430 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING 

use of wire has been strenuously opposed by people who 
have never used it. The objection has been that the fine 
wire would chafe the cane so that the cane would break and 
fall from the trellis. Such instances occur rarely, and 
when they do, it is so late in the season that the tendrils of 
the vine are ample to hold it to the trellis. The cane 
should be tied to the windward side of the wire for the 
same reason that the wire was stapled on the windward side 
of the post. In using the wire tie, the operator stands on 
the opposite side of the trellis from the cane, and follows 
the movements as illustrated in Figs. 272-275. This opera- 
tion puts on the wire with the fewest number of move- 
ments, binds the cane snug to the trellis, and makes a loop 
that falls from the trellis on the following season, when the 
cane is torn away. The tying wire should be thoroughly 
annealed, so that it can be easily bent and give no springy 
reaction after being worked. This wire is also useful in 
tying thorny shrubs to a trellis when a mittened hand is 
necessary to hold the branches in place while the other 
hand makes the tie." 



Chaptee VIII 



•AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CON- 
CLUDED—THE VARIOUS MODES 

The grape is trained for the purpose of keeping 
the vine in convenient shape and to allow each 
cluster to receive its full share of space and 
light. A well trained vine is easily cultivated and 
sprayed, and the grapes are readil}^ harvested, and 
it is only upon such vines that the best and fairest 
fruit is uniformly produced. Some kind of train- 
ing is essential, for a vine will not often bear good 
fruit when it lies upon the ground. Grape train- 
ing is described by one vineyardist as a process 
of hanging the vine up for air and sunshine, and 
he thinks that different ways of accomplishing that 
object may be equally good. He likens it to the 
hanging -out of a washing. He says that his 
mother and his wife each has her particular way 
of putting a washing on the line, and each is 
punctilious that her favorite method shall be ob- 
served. He says that he speaks from experience, 
for he has been bossed by both. 

In essence, there are three general types or 
styles of training, which may be denominated 
the upright, drooping, and horizontal, these terms 

(431) 



432 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

designating the direction of the bearing shoots.* 
The upright systems carry two or more canes or 
arms along a low horizontal wire, or sometimes 
obliquely across a trellis from below upwards, and 
the shoots are tied up, as they grow, to t*he wires 
above. The horizontal systems carry up a per- 
pendicular cane or arm, or sometimes two or 
more, from which the shoots are carried out hori- 
zontally, and are tied to perpendicular wires or 
posts. The drooping systems, represented in the 
Knif&n and post -training, carry the canes or arms 
up on a high horizontal wire or trellis, and allow 
the shoots to hang without tying. To one or 
another of these types all the systems of American 
grape training can be referred. 

There is no system of training which is best for 
all purposes and all varieties. The strong -grow- 
ing varieties more readily adapt themselves to the 
high, drooping systems than the weaker varieties, 
although the Delaware is often trained on a com- 
paratively low Kniffin with good effect. The high 
or drooping systems are of comparatively recent 
origin, and their particular advantages are the sav- 
ing of labor in summer tying, cheapness of the 
trellis, and the facility with which the ground can 
be cultivated without endangering the branches of 
the vine. The upright training distributes the 
bearing wood more evenly upon the vine, and is 

* Classification first made in the original edition of "American Grape 
Training." 



THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS 433 

thought, therefore, to insure more uniform fruit ; 
it keeps the top near the root, which is sometimes 
thought to be an advantage, and it is better suited 
to the stature of the small - growing varieties. 
There is, perhaps, a greater temptation to neglect 
the vines in the drooping systems than in the 
others, because the shoots need no tying, and do 
not, therefore, demand frequent attention, whereas 
in the upright systems the shoots soon become 
broken or displaced if not watched. For very 
large areas, or circumstances in which the best of 
care cannot be given the vineyard, the Kniffin or 
drooping systems are perhaps always to be recom- 
mended. Yet the Kniffin profits as much from 
diligence and skill as the other systems ; but it 
will give better results than the others under 
partial neglect. The strong varieties, especially 
those making long and drooping canes, are well 
adapted to the Kniffln styles ; but the smaller 
sorts, and those stronger kinds which, like Ca- 
tawba, make an upright and stocky growth, are 
usually trained on the upright systems. But the 
merits of both systems are so various and even so 
little understood, that it is impossible to recom- 
mend either one unqualifiedly. The advantages 
in either case are often little more than matters 
of personal opinion. It should be said, however, 
that the Kniffin or drooping systems are gaining 
in favor rapidly, and are evidently destined to 
overthrow much of the older upright training. 

EB 



434 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

This fact does not indicate, however, that the 
upright system is to be entirely superseded, but 
rather that it must be confined to those varieties 
and conditions for which it is best adapted. The 
two systems will undoubtedly supplement each 
other. The horizontal systems are occasionally 
used for choice varieties, but they are little 
known. 

To Mr. Spencer, who has observed many modes 
of training, the subject appeals as follows : "The 
fundamental idea of grape pruning is to find the 
proper balance between the energy which the vine 
has and the labor that it is expected to perform. 
What we treat as training is nothing more or less 
than spreading the vines to light and air, and 
there are many ways of doing it. Many of them 
are good, and some better for some varieties of 
grapes and for certain locations. As a rule, the 
difference in results of different methods of train- 
ing is not worth the contention that it has pro- 
voked. The great point is to determine what 
the plant is capable of doing, and then to cut 
and train the top to correspond. Select any 
system of training which you fancy or with which 
your help is the most familiar, ana then leave 
your wood in the form most convenient for that 
system." 

Spencer gives the following notes on general 
methods of grape pruning in the Chautauqua 
vineyards : 



PRUNING IN CHAUTAUQUA 435 

" A large part of the pruning is done in the winter months 
— some beginning in the fall soon after the crop is har- 
vested. Two grades of labor can be employed in this opera- 
tion—the skilled and the unskilled. The man of skill, or the 
expert, goes ahead and blocks out. He stands in front of a 
vine of far more tangled brush than that seen in Fig. 282, 
and, at a glance, tells by a judgment ripened by much ob- 
servation, just how many buds are required to ballast and 
not over -ballast the vine for another year. As the expert 
stands before the vine making the estimate, he might be 
likened to a man weighing a ham with steelyards, pushing 
the weight backward and forward, notch by notch, finding 
the point of balance. The expert, with his pruning shears, 
makes a dive here and a lunge there, a clip at the bottom 
and a snip at the top, and with a few more seemingly wild 
passes, all wood is severed from the bearing vine, but the 
number of buds desired to give fruit another year are left. 
The unskilled help, who receives possibly a dollar a day 
less than the expert, follows the expert, cutting the tendrils 
and other parts of the vine that are attached to anything 
but the trellis. The next process is ^stripping' the brush, 
and it is one involving brute force, ragged clothes and 
leather mittens. If the laborer does not put on a ragged 
suit, he will be apt to have one before he is done with his 
job. There is a little knack even in doing this work to the 
best advantage. The dismembered vines still hang to the 
upper trellis and often cling with considerable tenacity, 
and a particular jerk or yank, more easily demonstrated 
than described, is most effectual to land the brush on the 
ground between the rows. 

. "The next operation is to haul the brush out to the end 
of the row. Many tools have been devised for this purpose, 
some of them involving considerable expense. It is now 
the universal practice to use a simple pole — one a little 
larger than would be used to bind a load of logs, and not 
so large as required in binding a load of hay. It may be a 



436 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

sapling about four inches at tlie butt and two and one-half 
inches at the top, and ten to twelve feet long. The small 
end is to be held in the right hand, and the butt end to be 
pushed along the ground. A horse is hitched to this pole 
by a rope drawn through an inch hole about four feet from 
the butt or ground end. When starting at the end of the 
row, it seems that the straight pole would not gather any 
brush at all. It is a question of catching the first wad, and 
all the rest of the brush will cling to it. At the end of the 
row, the brush is hauled to a convenient pile, where it is to 
be burned, and is dumped by letting the end of the pole 
held in the hand revolve over towards the horse. If the 
pole hits the horse, the operator will see that there is not 
enough stretch of rope between the pole and whiffletree, 
and more must be provided." 

The cost of pruning an acre of grapes is re- 
ported as follows:* 

Blocking out .'~. $1.00 

Cutting curls 1.50 

Stripping, removing brush, tapping 

posts, stretching wire . . . . 1.50 

Labor of tying 1.50 

Cost of ties .25 

$5 75 

THE UPRIGHT SYSTEMS 

The upright systems are the oldest and best 
known of the styles of American grape training. 
They consist, essentially, in carrying out two hori- 
zontal canes, or sometimes arms, upon a low wire, 



♦John W. Spencer, Proc. W. New York Hort. Soc, 1896, p. 44. 



HORIZONTAL ARM 437 

and training the shoots from them vertically. 
These shoots are tied to the upper wires as they 
grow. This type was first clearly and forcibly 
described in detail by A. S. Fuller, in his "Grape 
Culturist," in 1864, and it became known as the 
Fuller system, although it was practiced many 
years previous to this time. 

Horizontal arm spur system.— There are two 
types, or styles, of this upright system. The older 
type and the one described in the books, is known 
as the Horizontal Arm Spur training. In this 
method, the two horizontal branches are perma- 
nent, or, in other words, they are true arms. The 
canes are cut back each fall to upright spurs on 
these arms, as explained on page 409 (Fig. 261). 
Two shoots are often allowed to grow from each 
of these spurs, as shown in Fig. 276. These 
spurs become overgrown and weak after a few 
years, and they are renewed from new shoots 
which spring from near their base or from the arm 
itself. Sometimes the whole arm is renewed from 
the head of the vine, or even from the ground. 

The number of these upright canes and their 
distance apart upon these permanent arms depend 
upon the variety, the strength of the vine and 
soil, and the fancy of the grower. From twelve 
to twenty inches apart upon the arm is the com- 
mon distance. If a vine is strong enough to carry 
five canes and the vines are eight feet apart, then 
the canes are distributed at intervals of about 



438 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

twenty inches. Some very strong vines of vig- 
orous varieties will carry eight canes upon the two 




Horizontal arm spur training. 



arms together, and in this case the canes stand 
about a foot apart. In the fall or winter, the 
cane is cut away and the strongest new cane 
which springs from its base is left for the bearing 
wood of the following year. This new cane is 
itself headed -in to the height of the trellis ; that 
is, if the uppermost and lowermost wires are 
thirty -four inches apart — as they are in the Broc- 
ton vineyards of Western New York, where a 
modification of this system is largely used — this 
new cane is shortened -in to about thirty -six inches 
long. On this length of cane there will be about 
seven good buds in the common varieties. 

A modification of this horizontal arm system is 



HORIZONTAL ARM 



439 



shown in Fig. 278. It is used in the vineyards 
of Chautauqua county, New York. The arms in 
this case are very short, and canes are taken out 
only at two or three places. The picture shows a 
vine in which two or three canes are taken from 




277. Horizontal arm. (Diagram.) 



the end of each arm, making five canes for the 
bearing top of the vine. These canes are cut back 
to spurs in the fall, as explained in the above 
paragraph. Sometimes one or two other canes are 
taken out of these arms nearer the main trunk. 
One is taken out in Fig. 278. The advantages 
urged for this style of training are the stronger 
growth which is insured by so few canes, and the 



440 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

small amount of old or permanent wood which is 
left to each vine. 

The true horizontal arm training is less popular 
than it was twenty years ago. It has serious 
faults, especially in the persistence of the old 




278. Chautauqua or Brocton training. 

spurs, and probably will eventually give place 
to other systems. Aside from the spur -pruning, 
the system is much like the following, which is 
a modification to allow of renewal, and to which 
the reader is referred for further details. This 
modification, which may be called the High Re- 
newal,* and which is one of the most serviceable 

*Term first used in the original edition of " American Grape Train- 
ing," 1893. 



HIGH RENEWAL TRAINING 



441 



of any of the styles of training, although it has 
never been fully described, we shall now consider. 
The high renewal. — This is an upright train- 
ing which is now very extensively employed in the 
lake regions of New York and elsewhere. It 
starts the head or branches of the vine from 
eighteen to thirty inches from the ground. The 
ideal height for most varieties is probably about 




279. The second season of upright training. 

two feet to the first wire, although thirty inches 
is better than eighteen. If the vines are lower 
than two feet, they are liable to be injured by the 
plow or cultivator, the earth is dashed against the 
clusters by heavy rains, and if the shoots become 
loose they strike the ground and the grapes are 
soon soiled. A single trunk or arm is carried up 
to the required height, or if good branches hap- 
pen to form lower down, two main canes are car- 
ried from this point up to the required distance to 
meet the lower wire, so that the trunk becomes Y- 
shaped, as seen in Figs. 279, 281, 285. In fact, 



442 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 




vineyardists usually prefer to have this head or 
crotch a few inches below the lowest wire, to 
facilitate the spreading and placing of the canes. 
The trellis for the upright systems nearly always 
comprises three wires, although only two are some- 
times used for the smaller -growing varieties, and 

very rarely 
four are 
used for 
the strongest kinds, although 
this number is unnecessary. 
The lowest wire is stretched at 
eighteen, twenty -four or thirty 
inches from the ground, and 
the two upper ones are placed 
at distances of eighteen or 
twenty inches apart. 

The second season after plant- 
ing should see the vine tied to 
the first wire. Fig. 279 is a 
photograph taken in Julj^, 1892, 
of a Concord vine which was 
set in the spring of 1891. In 
the fall of 1891, the vine was 
cut back to three or four buds, 
and in the spring of 1892, two 
of these buds were allowed to 
make canes. These two canes are now tied to 
the wire, which was stretched in the spring of 
1892. In this case, the branches start near the 



. 5f?*« in 



280. Making the 
T-head. 



HIGH RENEWAL 443 

surface of the ground. Sometimes only a single 
strong shoot grows, and in order to secure the 
two branches it is broken over where it passes 
the wire, and is usually tied to a stake to afford 
support. Fig. 280 shows this operation. A bud 
will develop at the bend or break, from which 




281. The third season of high renewal. Concord. 

a cane can be trained in the opposite direction 
from the original portion, and the T-head is 
secured. 

The close of the second season after planting, 
therefore, will usually find the vine with two good 
canes extending in opposite directions, and tied 
to the wire. The pruning at that time will con- 
sist in cutting off the ends of these canes back to 
firm and strong wood, which will leave them bear- 
ing from five to eight buds. The third season, 
shoots will grow upright from these buds and will 
be tied to the second wire, which has now been 
supplied. Late in the third season the vine 
should have much the appearance of that shown 



444 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

in Fig. 281. The third wire is usually added to 
the trellis at the close of the second season, at 
the same time that the second wire is put on ; but 
occasionally this is delayed until the close of the 
third season. Some of the upright shoots may 
bear a few grapes this third season, but unless 
the vines are very strong, the flower clusters 
should be removed; and a three -year -old vine 
should never be allowed to bear heavily. It must 
be remembered, however, that both these hori- 
zontal canes, with all their mass of herbage, are 
to be cut away in the fall or winter of the third 
year. Some provision must have been made, 
therefore, for the top for the fourth year. It will 
be recalled that in discussing the renewal pruning 
(page 411, Fig. 262) , it was found that two or more 
shoots are allowed to grow each year to form the 
basis of the top the following year. In Fig. 281 
three or four such shoots can be seen springing 
from the Y-shaped portion in the center of the 
vine. These shoots or canes are to be bent 
down to the lowest wire next spring, and the 
bearing shoots will arise from them. This pro- 
cess will be seen at a glance from Figs. 282, 283 
and 284. The first shows a full-grown old vine, 
trained on three wires. Fig. 283 shows the same 
vine when pruned. Two long canes, with six or 
eight buds each, are left to form the top of the 
following year. The two stubs from which the 
renewal canes are to orrow for the second year's 






cy > 



o 

CD 
•-i 

d 

05 










446 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

top, are seen in the center. In the fall of the 
next year, therefore, these two outside canes will 
be cut away to the base of these renewal stubs ; 
and the renewal canes, in the meantime, will have 



X 



■S^*^* 





283, High renewal, pruned. 



made a year's growth. These renewal stubs in 
this picture are really spurs, as will be seen ; that 
is, they contain two ages of wood. It is the pur- 
pose, however, to remove these stubs or spurs 
every two or three years at most, and to bring 
new canes directly from the old wood or head. 



448 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

If possible, the renewal cane is brought from a 
new place on the old wood every year, in order to 
avoid a spur. Such was the case in the vine 
shown in Fig. 262, page 410. Fig. 284 shows 
the vine tied down to the lowest wire. Two 
ties have been made upon each cane. Fig. 285 
shows a vine in which four canes have been left 
to form the top for the following year. The stubs 
for the renewals can be seen in the Y. It is 
customary to leave more than two canes, occasion- 
ally, in strong -growing varieties like Concord. 
Sometimes four, and occasionally six are left. If 
four canes are left, two may be tied together in 
each direction on the bottom wire. If six are 
used, the two extra ones should be tied along the 
second wire, parallel with the lowest ones. These 
extra canes are sometimes tied obliquely across 
the trellis, but this practice should be discouraged, 
for the usual tendency of the vine is to make its 
greatest growth at the top, and the lower buds 
may fail to bear. 

The ideal length of the two canes varies with 
different varieties and the distance apart at which 
the vines are set. Very strong kinds, like Con- 
cord and Niagara, can carry ten or twelve buds on 
each cane, especially if the vines are set more than 
eight feet apart. Fig. 286 shows half of a Con- 
cord vine in which about ten buds were left on 
each cane. These strong sorts can often carry 
forty or fifty buds to the vine to advantage, but 



HIGH RENEWAL 449 

when this number is left the canes should be four, 
as explained in the last paragraph. In Delaware 
and other weak -growing varieties, twenty or 
twenty -five buds to the vine should be the maxi- 
mum and only two canes should be left. In short- 
jointed varieties, the canes are usually cut to the 
desired length — four to six feet — even if too great 
a number of buds is left, but the shoots which 
spring from these extra buds are broken out soon 
after they start. A Delaware vine which has made 
an unusually short or weak growth will require 
fewer buds to be left for next year's top than a 
neighboring vine of the same variety which has 
made a strong growth. The Catawba, which is a 
short but very stiff grower, is usually cut back 
to six or eight buds, as seen in Figs. 282, 283, 
284. Fig. 287 is a good Catawba vine four years 
set. 

The grower soon learns to adjust the pruning to 
the character of the vine, without effort. He has 
in his mind a certain ideal crop of grapes, per- 
haps about so many bunches, and he leaves enough 
buds to produce this amount, allowing, perhaps, 
ten per cent of the buds for accidents and barren 
shoots. He knows, too, that the canes should 
always be cut back to firm, well -ripened wood. 
It should be said that mere size of cane does not 
indicate its value as a fruit -bearing branch. 
Hard, smooth wood of medium size usually gives 
better results than the very large and softer canes 
cc 



450 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

which are sometimes produced on soils rich in 
nitrogenous manures. This large and overgrown 
wood is known as a "bull cane." A cane does 
not attain its full growth the first year, but will 
increase in diameter during the second season. 
The tying, therefore, should be sufficiently loose 




285. High renewal with four canes. 

or elastic to allow of growth, although it should 
be firm enough to hold the cane constantly in 
place. The cane should not be hung from the 
wire, but tied close to it, provision being made 
for the swelling of the wood to twice its diameter. 

The shoots are tied to the second wire soon after 
they pass it, or have attained firmness enough to 
allow of tying, and the same shoots are tied again 
to the top wire. All the shoots do not grow with 
equal rapidity, and the vineyard must be gone 
over more than twice if the shoots are kept prop- 



HIGH RENEWAL 



451 



erly tied. Perhaps four times over the vineyard 
will be all that is necessary for careful summer 
tj'ing. Many vineyardists tie only once or twice, 
but this neglect should be discouraged. This 
tying is mostly done with green rye straw or raf&a. 
A piece of straw about ten inches long is used 
for each tie, it usually being wrapped but once 
about the shoot. The knot is made with a twist 




286. High renewal complete. Concord. 



and tuck. If rafiia is used, a common string- 
knot is made. When the shoots reach the top of 
the trellis, they are usually allowed to take care 
of themselves. The Catawba shoots stand nearly 
erect above the top wire, and ordinarily need no 
attention. The long -growing varieties will be 
likely to drag the shoots on the ground before 
the close of the season. If these tips interfere 
with the cultivation, they may be clipped off with 
a sickle or corn -cutter, although this practice 
should be delayed as long as possible to prevent 
the growth of laterals (see page 415). It is prob- 



452 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

ably better to avoid cutting entirely. Some 
growers wind or tie the longest shoots on the top 
wire, as seen in Fig. 289. It is probably best, as a 
rule, to allow the shoots to hang over naturally, 
and to clip them only when they seriously inter- 
fere with the work of the hoe and cultivator. The 




287. High renewal in fourth year, with Catawba. 



treatment for slat trellises is essentially the same 
as on wire trellises, except that longer strings 
must be used in tying. 

It is apparent that nearly or quite all the fruit 
in the High Renewal is borne between the first 
and second wires, at the bottom of the trellis. If 
the lower wire is twenty -four or thirty inches 
high, this fruit will hang at the most convenient 
height for picking. The fruit traj^s are set upon 



HIGH RENEWAL 453 

the ground, and both hands are free. The fruit is 
also protected from the hot suns and from frost ; 
and if the shoots are properly tied, the clusters 
are not shaken roughly by the wind. It is, of 
course, desirable that all the clusters should be 
fully exposed to light and air, and all superfluous 
shoots should, therefore, be pulled off, as already 
explained (page 415) . In rare cases it may also be 
necessary, for this purpose, to prune the canes 
which droop over from the top of the trellis. 

After a few years, the old top or head of the 
vine becomes more or less weak, and it should be 
renewed from the root. The thrifty vineyardist 
anticipates this circumstance, and now and then 
allows a strong shoot which may spring from the 
ground to remain. This shoot is treated very 
much like a young vine, and the head is formed 
during the second year (page 408). If it should 
make a strong growth during the first year, and 
develop stout laterals, it may be cut back only 
to the lowest wire the first fall ; but in other 
cases, it should be cut back to two or three buds, 
from one of which a strong and permanent shoot 
is taken the second year. When this new top 
comes into bearing, the old trunk is cut off at the 
surface of the ground, or below, if possible. A 
top wiU retain its vigor for six or eight years 
under ordinary treatment, and sometimes much 
longer. These tops are renewed from time to time 
as occasion permits or demands, and any vineyard 



454 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

which has been bearing a number of years will 
nearly always have a few vines in process of re- 
newal. The reader should not receive the impres- 
sion, however, that the life or vitality of a vine is 
necessarily limited. Vines often continue to bear 
for twenty years or more without ^renewal ; but 
the head after a time comes to be large and rough 




288. A Concord vine thirty years old. 

and crooked, and often weakened by scars, and 
better results are likely to be obtained if a new, 
clean vine takes its place. Fig. 288 shows the 
great stump of a Concord vine thirty years old, 
and which is still in thrifty bearing condition. 

The High Renewal is extensively used in the 
lake region of Western New York for all varie- 
ties. It is particularly well adapted to Delaware, 
Catawba, and other weak or short varieties. 



FAN SYSTEM OF TRAINING 



455 



When systematically pursued, it gives fruit of 
the highest excellence. This High Renewal train- 
ing, like all the low upright systems, allows the 




289. 



Fan-trained Concord. 



vines to be laid down easily in winter, which is an 
important consideration in many parts of Canada 
and in the colder Northern states. It is often 
called, but erroneously, the horizontal arm sys- 
tem. 

Fan -TRAINING. — A system much used a few 
years ago, and still sometimes seen, is one which 
renews back nearly to the ground each year, and 
carries the fruiting canes up in a fan -shaped 
manner. This system has the advantages of dis- 
pensing with much of the old wood, or trunk, and 



456 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

facilitating laying down the vine in winter in 
cold climates. On the other hand, it has the dis- 
advantages of bearing the fruit too low — unless 
the lower clusters are removed — and making a 
vine of inconvenient shape for tying. It is little 
used at present. Fig. 289 shows a fan -trained 




290. The vine pruned. 

vine_ before pruning. Fig. 290 is the same vine 
pruned, although it is by no means an ideal plant. 
This vine has not been properly renewed, but bears 
long, crooked spurs, from which the canes arise. 
One of these spurs is seen to extend beyond the 
lower wire. The spurs should be kept very short, 
and they should be entirely removed every two 



FAN -TRAINING 457 

or three years, as explained in the above discus- 
sion of the High Renewal training. 

The shoots are allowed to take their natural 
course, being tied to any wire near which they 
chance to grow, finally lopping over the top wire. 
Sometimes the canes are bent down and tied 
horizontally to the wires, and this is probably 




291. Marvin's fan-training. 

the better practice. Two canes may be tied in 
each direction on the lower wire, or the two in- 
ner canes may be tied down to the second wire. 
In either case, the vine is essentially like the 
High Renewal, except that the trunk is shorter. 

Another form of fan -training, which is a modi- 
fication of the Kelly's Island System, is shown in 
Fig. 291, and is thus described:* "The engrav- 
ing represents a sample vine ten years old pruned. 

*D. S. Marvin, Pop. Gard. iii. 140. 



458 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

It will be observed that the right-hand cane is 
two -thirds of it old wood, to be all cut away at 
the next pruning. The old canes that bore a 
heavy crop of fruit have been pruned away, all 
but the stumps of the right-hand cane. Three or 
more buds at the end of the cane, as the vine maj' 
be strong or weak, are to be left to bear fruit, the 
others to be rubbed off, except enough to form 
new canes near the ground, to renew next year's 
bearing canes. ^ >f^ ^ TJie original Kelly's 
Island System was one long cane or arm, with 
spurs for next year's canes at the surface of the 
soil, but it was found objectionable because it is 
always difficult to get the fruit -spurs to grow 
uniform upon long canes, the first and the last 
canes growing too strong at the expense of the 
center canes." 

A mongrel mode of training is reported in 
Fig. 292. The diagram is described* as ^'a well- 
managed six -year -old vine ; heavier parts show 
old wood ; light parts, this year's wood." It is 
seen to be a combination of High Renewal (re- 
newal cane at a), horizontal arm and fan- 
training. 

TEE DROOPING SYSTEMS 

In 1845 William T. Cornell planted a vine- 
yard in the Hudson River Valley. A neighbor. 



*By "a well-known liortieulturist" in Pop. Gard. iii. 278. 



HISTORY OF KNIFFIN TRAINING 



459 



William Kniffin, was a stone mason with a few 
acres of land to which he devoted his attention 
during the leisure seasons of his trade. Cornell 
induced Kniffin to plant a few grapes. He 
^planted the Isabella, and succeeding beyond his 
expectations, the plantation was increased into a 
respectable vineyard, and Kniffin came to be re- 
garded as a local authority upon grape culture. 




292. A mixed mode. 



Those were the pioneer days in commercial grape 
growing in North America, and there were no 
undisputed maxims of cultivation and training. 
If any system of close training and pruning was 
employed, it was probably the old horizontal arm 
spur system, or something like it. One day a 
large limb broke from an apple-tree and fell on 
a grape-vine, tearing off some of the canes and 
crushing the vine into a singular shape. The 
vine was thought to be ruined, but it was left 



460 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

until the fruit could be gathered. But as the 
fruit matured, its large size and handsome ap- 
pearance attracted attention. It was the best 
fruit in the vineyard! Mr. Knifiin was an obser- 
vant man, and he inquired into the cause of the 
excellent fruit. He noticed that the vine had 
been pruned, and that the best canes stood out 
horizontally. From this suggestion he developed 
the four -cane system of training which now bears 
his name. A year or two later, in 1854, the 
system had attracted the attention of those of 
his neighbors who cultivated grapes, and there- 
after it spread throughout the Hudson Valley, 
where it is to-day, with various modifications, 
the chief method of grape training. Its merits 
have become known beyond its original valley, 
and it is now spreading more rapidly than any 
other system. The ground upon which the old 
Isabellas grew is now occupied by Concords, 
which are as vigorous and productive as those 
grown upon newer soils. William Kniffin died 
at his home in Clintondale, Ulster county. New 
York, June 13, 1876, at fifty -seven years of age. 
The TRUE OR four -cane Kniffin system. — 
The true Kniffin sj^stem, very nearly as practiced 
by its originator, is shown in Fig. 293. A single 
stem or trunk is carried directly to the top wire, 
and two canes are taken out from side spurs at 
each wire. Mr. Kniffin believed in short canes, 
and cut them back to about six buds on both 



^». 



(3- 



CD 

3? 





462 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 



wires. But most growers now prefer to leave the 
upper canes longer than the lower ones, as seen 

in illustration. The 
bearing shoots are al- 
lowed to hang at will, 
so that no summer 
tying is necessary ; this 
is the distinguishing 
mark of the various 
Kniffin systems. The 
main trunk is tied to 
each wire, and the 
canes are tied to the 
wires in spring. This 
sj^stem possesses the 
great advantage, there- 
fore, of requiring little 
labor during the busy 
days of the growing 
season ; and the vines 
are easily cultivated, 
and if the rows are 
nine or ten feet apart, 
currants or other bush- 
fruits can be grown be- 
tween. The system is 
especially adapted to 
the strong varieties of 
grapes, particularly to those which are most droop- 
ing. For further comparisons of the merits of 




291. No. 293 when pruned. 



KNIFFIN PRUNING 463 

different systems of training, the reader should 
consult pages 432 to 434. 

The pruning of the Knifan vine consists in 
cutting off all the wood except a single cane from 
each spur. Fig. 294 illustrates the process. This 
is the same vine which is shown with the full 
amount of wood on in Fig. 293. The drooping 
shoots shown in that illustration bore the grapes 
of 1892 ; and now, in the winter of 1892-3, they 
are all to be cut away, with the horizontal old 
canes from which they grew, except only the four 
canes which hang nearest the main trunk. Fig. 
294 shows the vine after it had been pruned» 
It is not obligatory that the canes which are left 
after the pruning should be those nearest the 
trunk, for it may happen that these may be 
weak; but, other things being equal, these canes 
are preferable because their selection keeps the' 
old spurs short. The careful grower will take 
pains to remove the weak shoots which start 
from this point, in order that a strong cane may 
be obtained. It is desirable that these side spurs 
be removed entirely every three or four years, a 
new cane being brought out again from the main 
body or trunk. There is little expectation, how- 
ever, that there shall be such a complete renewal 
pruning as that practiced in the High Renewal, 
which we discussed in the preceding pages. 

It will be seen that the drooping canes in Fig. 
294 are shorter than they were originally, as 



464 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

shown in Fig. 293. They have been cut back. 
The length at which these canes shall be left is 
a moot point. Much depends on the variety, 
the distance between the wires, the strength of 
the soil, and other factors. Nearly all growers 
now agree that the upper canes should be longer 
than the lower ones, although equal canes are 
still used in some places. In strong varieties, 
like Worden, each of the upper canes may bear 
ten buds and each of the lower ones five. This 
gives thirty buds to the vine. Some growers pre- 
fer to leave twelve buds above, and only four 
below. 

These four pruned canes are generally allowed 
to hang during winter, but are tied onto the wires 
before the buds swell in spring. They are 
stretched out horizontally and secured to the 
wire by one or two ties on each cane The 
shoots which spring from these horizontal canes 
stand upright or oblique at first, but they soon 
fall over with the weight of foliage and fruit. If 
they touch the ground, the ends may be clipped 
with a sickle, corn -cutter or scythe, although 
this is not always done, and is not necessary un- 
less the canes interfere with cultivation. There 
is no summer pinching or pruning, although the 
superfluous shoots should be broken out, as in 
other systems. It is imperative, for best results, 
that the shoots do not grow out horizontally on 
the wires. They should be torn off the wires once 



KNIPFIN TRAINING 465 

or twice during the summer, so that they will 
hang free. 

Only two wires are used in the true Kniffin 
trellis. The end posts are usually set in holes, 
rather than driven, to render them solid, and they 
should always be well braced. The intermediate 
posts are driven, and they usually stand between 
every alternate vine, or twenty feet apart if the 
vines are ten feet apart — which is a common dis- 
tance for the most vigorous varieties. For the 
stjrong- growing varieties, the top wire is placed 
from five and one -half to six feet above the 
ground. Five feet nine inches is a popular 
height. The posts will heave sufficiently to bring 
the height to six feet, although it is best to ^Hap" 
the posts every spring with a maul in order to 
drive them back and make them firm. The lower 
wire is usually placed at three and one -half feet. 
Delawares, if trained Kniffin, should not stand 
above five feet four inches, or at most five feet 
six inches. Strong vines on good soil are often 
put onto the trellis the second year, although it 
is a commoner practice, perhaps, to stake them 
the second season, as already explained (page 412), 
and put them on the wires the third season. The 
year following the tying on the trellis, the vine 
should bear a partial crop. The vine is usuallj^ 
carried directly to the top wire the first season of 
training, although it is the practice of some grow- 
ers, especially outside the Hudson Valley, to stop 

DD 



466 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 



the trunk at the lower wire the first year of 
permanent training, and to carry it to the top 
wire the following year. 

Yields from good Knif&n vines will average fully 
as high and perhaps higher than from other 
species of training. W. D. Barns, of Orange 
county. New York, has had an annual average of 
twenty -six pounds of Concords to the vine for 
nine years, 1,550 vines being considered in the 
calculation. While the Delaware is not so well 
suited to the Knif&n system as stronger varieties, 
it can nevertheless be trained in this manner with 
success, as the following average yields obtained 
by Mr. Barns from 200 vines set in 1881 will 
show : 

1886 8% pounds to the vine. 

1887 11% 

1888 8 

1889 93^ 

1890 7 

1891 16 

1892 13 



Modifications of the four -cane Kniffin. — 
Various modifications of this original four -cane 
Kniffin are in use. The Kniffin idea is often 
carelessly applied to a rack trellis. In such cases, 
several canes were allowed to grow where onlj^ 
two should have been left. Fig. 295 is a com- 
mon but poor style of Kniffin used in some of 
the large new vineyards of western New York. 
It differs from the type in the training of the 



MODIFIED KNIFFINS 



467 



young wood. These shoots, instead of being al- 
lowed to hang at will, are carried out horizon- 
tally and either tied to the wire or twisted around 
it. The advantage urged for this modification 
is the little injury done by wind, but, as a mat- 
ter of practice, it affords less protection than the 
true drooping Kniffln, for in the latter the shoots 




A common but poor type of Knifln. 



from the upper cane soon cling to the lower 
wire, and the shoots from both tiers of canes 
protect each other below the lower wire. There 
are three serious disadvantages to this holding 
up of the shoots, — it makes unnecessary labor, 
the canes are likely to make wood or ''bull 
canes" (see page 450) at the expense of fruit, 
and the fruit is bunched together on the vines. 
The true and successful Kniffin does not allow 



468 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

the growing shoots to run ont on the wires in 
this way (see page 464). 

Another common modification of the four -cane 
Kniffin is that shown in Fig. 296, in which a 
crotch or Y is made in the trunk. This crotch 
is used in the belief that the necessary sap sup- 




296. The Y-trunk Kniffin. 

ply is thereby more readily deflected into the 
lower arms than by the system of side spurring 
on a straight or continuous trunk. This is prob- 
ably a fallacy, and may have arisen from the at- 
tempt to grow as heavy canes on the lower wires 
as on the upper one. Nevertheless, this modifi- 
cation is in common use in western New York 
and elsewhere. 

This Y-trunk Knifiin, as understood in western 
New York, is explained in its various stages in 



MODIFIED KNIFPINS 469 

Figs. 297 to 303,* the cross -marks indicating 
where cuts are to be made. 

If it is desired to leave an equal number of 
buds on both wires, the Double Kniffin will prob- 
ably be found most satisfactory. Two distinct 
trunks are brought from the root, each supply- 
ing a single wire only (Fig. 304) . The trunks 
are often tied together to hold them in place. 
This system, under the name of Improved Kniffin, 
is just coming into notice in restricted portions 
of the Hudson Valley. 

The two -cane Kniffin, or umbrella sys- 
tem. — Inasmuch as the greater part of the fruit 
in the Four- Cane Kniffin is borne on the upper 
wire, the question arises if it. would not be better 
to dispense with the lower canes and cut the upper 
ones longer. This is now done to a considerable 
extent, especially in the Hudson Valley. Fig. 305 
explains the operation. This shows a pruned 
vine. The trunk is tied to the lower wire to 
steady it, and two canes, each bearing from nine 
to fifteen buds, are left on the upper wire. 
These canes are tied to the upper wire, and they 
are then bent down, hoop -like, to the lower wire, 
where the ends are tied. In some instances, the 
lower wire is dispensed with, but this is not ad- 
visable. This wire holds the vine in place against 
the winds, and prevents the too violent whipping 
of the hanging shoots. During the growing sea- 

*H. P. Van Dusen, in Pop. Gard. iii. 69. 



472 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

son, renewal canes are taken from the spurs in 
exactly the same manner as in the ordinary Knif- 
fin. This species of training reduces the amount 
of leaf -surface to a minimum, and every precau- 
tion must be taken to insure a healthy leaf- 
growth. This system of training will probably 
not allow of the successful girdling of the vine 
for the purpose of hastening the maturity and 
augmenting the size of the fruit (page 284). 
Yet heavy crops can be obtained from it, if 
liberal fertilizing and good cultivation are em- 
ployed, and the fruit is nearly always first -class. 
A certain Concord vine trained in this manner 
produced in 1892 eighty clusters of first quality 
grapes, weighing forty pounds. 

Another type of Umbrella training has five 
main canes instead of two. Except in very 
strong vines, this top is too heavy, and it is 
probably never so good as the other (Fig. 305), 
if the highest results are desired; but for the 
grower who does not practice high cultivation 
it is probably a safer system than the other. 

The low, or one -wire Kniffin. — A modifica- 
tion of this Umbrella system is sometimes used, 
in which the trellis is only three or four feet 
high and comprises but a single wire. A cane of 
ten or a dozen buds is tied out in each direction, 
and the shoots are allowed to hang in essentially 
the same manner as in the True or High Kniffin 
system. The advantages urged for this system 



MODIFIED KNIFPINS 



473 



are the protection of the grapes from wind, the 
large size of the fruit dne to the small amount 
of bearing wood, the ease of lajdng down the 
vines, the readiness with which the top can be 




306. Eight-cane Knif&n. (Diagram.) 

renewed from the root as occasion demands, and 
the cheapness of the trellis. 

The six -cane Kniffin.— There are many old 
vineyards in eastern New York which are trained 
on a six -cane or three -wire system. The gen- 
eral pruning and management of these vines do 
not differ from that of the common Kniffin. Very 
strong varieties, which can carry an abundance of 
wood, may be profitable on this style of train- 
ing, but it cannot be recommended. A Concord 
vineyard over thirty years old, comprising 295 
vines, trained in this^fashion, is still thrifty and 



474 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

productive. Twice it has produced crops of six 
tons. 

Eight -CANE Knipfin. — Eight and even ten 
canes are sometimes left on a single trunk, 
and are trained out horizontally or somewhat 
obliquely, as shown in the accompanying dia- 
gram (Fig. 306). Unless these canes are cut 
back to four or five buds each, the vine carries 
too much wood and fruit. This system allows 
of close planting, but the trellis is too expensive. 
The trunk is soon overgrown with spurs, 
and it is likely to become prematurely weak. 
This style is very rarely used. 

CaYWOOD, OVERHEAD, OR ARBOR KnIFFIN. — A 

curious modification of the Kniffin is employed 
somewhat on the Hudson, particularly by Sands 
Haviland, at Marlboro'. The vines are carried 
up on a kind of overhead arbor, as shown in 
Figs. 307, 308. The trellis is six feet above 
the ground, and is composed of three horizontal 
wires lying in the same plane. The central wire 
runs from post to post, and one upon either 
side is attached to the end of a three-foot cross- 
bar, as represented in Fig. 307. The rows are 
nine feet apart, and the vines and posts twelve 
feet apart in the row. Contiguous rows are 
braced by a connecting-pole, as in Fig. 308. 
The trunk of the vine ends in a T-shaped head. 
From this T-head, five canes are carried out 
from spurs. It was formerly the practice to 



CAYWOOD TRAINING 



475 



carry out six canes, one in each direction upon 
each wire, but this was found to supply too much 
wood. Now two canes are carried in one direc- 




307. Overhead Kniffin. 



tion and three in the other; and the positions 
of these sets are alternated each year, if possible. 
The canes which are left after the winter prun- 
ing are tied along the wires in spring, as in the 



476 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

Kniffin, and the shoots hang over the wires. The 
chief advantage of this training is that it allows 
of the growing of bush -fruits between the rows, 
as seen in Fig. 308. It is also said that the 
clusters hang so free that the bloom is not in- 
jured by the twigs or leaves, and the fruit is 
protected from sun and frost. Every post must 




308. Overhead Kniffin. 

be large and firmly set, however, adding much 
to the cost of the trellis. 

Several styles similar to this are in use, one 
of the best being the Crittenden system, of 
Michigan. In this system the trellis is low, not 
exceeding four or five feet, and the vines cover 
a flat -topped platform two or three feet wide. 
By midsummer the drooping shoots have reached 
the ground, making a continuous drapery of 
foliage, as seen in Fig. 309. 



CROSS -WIRE TRAINING 



477 



The CROSS -wire system. — Another high Knif- 
fln training, and which is also confined to the 
vicinity of Marlboro', New York, is the Cross- 
Wire, represented in Fig. 310. Small posts are 
set eight feet apart each way? and a single wire 
runs from the top of post to post — six and one- 
half feet from the ground — in each direction, 
forming a check -row system of overhead wires. 
The grape-vine is set at the foot of the stake. 




309. Crittenden training in tbe original vineyard. 
St. Joseph, Mich. 

to which the trunk is tied for support. Four 
canes are taken from spurs on the head of the 
trunk, one for each of the radiating wires. 
These canes are cut to three and one -half or 
four feet in length, and the bearing shoots 
droop as they grow. Fig. 310 shows this train- 
ing as it appears some time after the leaves 
start in spring. Later in the season the whole 
vineyard becomes a great arbor, and a person 
standing at a distance sees an almost impene- 
trable mass of herbage. This system appears to 



478 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

have little merit, and will always remain local 
in application. It possesses the advantage of 
economy in construction of the trellis, for very 
slender posts are used, even at the ends of the 
rows. The end posts are either braced by a 
pole, or anchored by a wire taken from the top 




310. Cross-wire training. 



and secured to a stake or stone eight or ten feet 
beyond, outside the vineyard. 

Renewal Kniffin. — It is an easy matter to 
adapt the Kniffin principle of free hanging 
shoots to a true renewal method of pruning. 
There are a few modifications in use in which 
the wood is annually renewed to near the ground. 
The trellises comprise either two or three wires, 
and are made in the same manner as for the 



RENEWAL KNIFFIN 



479 



upright systems, as the High Renewal. At the 
annual pruning only one cane is left. This com- 
prises twelve or fifteen buds, and is tied up 
diagonally across the trellis, the point or end of 
the cane usually being bent downward somewhat, 
in order to check the strong growth from the 

uppermost parts. The shoots 
1^ hang from this cane, and 
they may be pinched back 
when they reach the ground. 
In the meantime, a strong 
shoot is taken out from the 
opposite side of the head — 
which usually stands a foot 
or less from the ground — to 
make the bearing wood of 
the next year; and this new 
cane will be tied in an op- 
posite direction on the trellis 
from the present bearing 
cane, and the next renewal 
shoot will be taken from 
the other side of the head, 
or the side from which the 
present bearing wood sprung; 
so that the bearing top of 
the vine is alternated in either direction upon the 
trellis. This system, and similar ones, allows of 
laying down the vines easily in winter, and in- 
sures excellent fruit because the amount of bear- 




311. 



MuBSon training. 
End view. 



480 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

ing wood is small; but the crop produced is 
not large enough to satisfy the demands of most 
grape growers. 

The Munson system.— An unique system of 
training, upon the Knif&n principle, has been de- 
vised by T. V. Munson, of Denison, Texas, a 
well-known authority upon grapes.* Two posts 
are set in the same hole, their tops diverging. 
A wire is stretched along the top of these posts, 
and a third one is hung between them on cross- 
wires. The trunk of the vine, or its head, is 
secured to this middle lower wire and the shoots 
lop over the side wires. The growth, therefore, 
makes a V-shaped or trough -like mass of herb- 
age. Fig. 311 is an end view of this trellis, 
showing the short wire connecting the posts, and 
which also holds the middle trellis -wire at the 
point of the V. Fig. 312 is a side view of the 
trellis. The bearing canes, two or four in num- 
ber, which are left after the annual pruning, are 
tied along this middle wire. The main trunk 
forks just under the middle wire, as seen at the 
left in Fig. 312. A head is formed at this place 
not unlike that which characterizes the High 
Renewal, for this system also employs renewal 
pruniug. The trellis stands six feet high. The 
shoots stand upright at first, but soon fall down 
and are supported by the side wires. The fol- 



*Mr. Munson described and illustrated this mode of training in 
"American Garden," xiii. 333 (1892). 




EE 



482 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

lowing account of this system of training is 
written for this occasion by Mr. Munson:* 

"After the vines have flowered, the bearing laterals have 
their tips pinched off, and that is all the summer pruning 
the vine gets, except to rub off all eyes that stairt on the 
body below the crotch. Two to four shoots, according to 
strength of vine, are started from the forks or crotch, and 
allowed to bear no fruit, but are trained along over the 
lower central wire for renewal canes. When pruning time 
arrives, the entire bearing cane of the present year, with 
all its laterals, is cut away at a point near where the 
young renewal shoots have started, and these shoots are 
shortened back, according to strength of vine ; some, such 
as Herbemont, being able at four years to fill four shoots 
six or eight feet long with fine fruit, while Delaware could 
not well carry over three or four feet each way of one 
shoot only. The different varieties are set at various dis- 
tances apart, according as they are strong or weak growers. 

" Thus the trellis and system of pruning are reduced to 
the simplest form. A few cuts to each vine cover all the 
pruning, and a few ties complete the task. A novice can 
soon learn to do the work well. The trunk or main stem is 
secured to the middle lower wire, along which all bearing 
canes are tied after pruning, and from which the young 
laterals which produce the crop are to spring. These lat- 
erals strike the two outer wires, soon clinging to them 
with their tendrils, and are safe from destruction, while 
the fruit is thrown in the best possible position for spray- 
ing and gathering, and is still shaded with the canopy of 
leaves. I have now used this trellis five years upon ten 
acres of mixed vines, and I am more pleased with it 
every year. 

" The following advantages are secured by this system : 

"1. The natural habit of the vine is maintained, which 



*American Grape Training, 80. 



MUNSON TRAINING 483 

is a canopy to shade tlie roots and body of vine and the 
fruit, without smothering. 

"2. New wood, formed by sap which has never passed 
through bearing wood, is secured for the next crop — a 
very important matter. '^ 

"3. Simplicity and convenience of trellis, allowing free 
passage in any direction through the vineyard ; circulation 
of air without danger of breaking tender shoots ; ease of 
pruning, spraying, cultivating, harvesting. 

"4. Perfect control in pruning of amount of crop to 
suit capacity of vine. 

"5. Long canes for bearing, which agrees exactly with 
the nature of nearly all our American species far better 
than short spurs. 

"6. Ease of laying down in winter. The vine being 
pruned and not tied, standing away from posts, can be 
bent down to one side between the rows, and earth thrown 
upon it, and can be quickly raised and tied in position. 

"7. Cheapness of construction and ease of removing 
trellis material and using it again. 

"8. Durability of both trellis and vineyard." 

The Munson system of training has found 
many friends. Waugh writes of it as follows 
from experience at the Oklahoma Experiment 
Station : * 

"It may be well to explain, for those not intimate with 
this form of trellis, the construction used and advocated 
by Mr. T. V. Munson. According to this method, the posts 
are made six feet high. At the top runs a cross-piece two 
feet long, at each end of which is fastened one of the 
wires of the trellis. Mr. Munson originally used two posts 
set in a V- shape, with the tops two feet apart. The result 



*Garden and Forest, May 8, 1895, 185. 



484 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

is the same either way. Eight inches lower than the two 
side wires there is a third wire fastened to the posts. 
This brings the three wires into a very broad V shape. 
There are no other wires on the trellis. 

"The system of pruning, which forms a necessary part 
of the scheme, provides that one or two stems be brought 
up to the lower or middle wire, and that from these stems 
canes shall be run each way along this wire. From these 
canes the bearing shoots come at right angles, and natur- 
ally fall out over the top wires. Renewals are most easily 
made by spurring at the point on the lower wire where 
the canes are given off from the main stem, though it is 
often a very easy matter to renew quite from the ground. 

"This system has been in use at the Oklahoma Experi- 
ment Station from the first, though that is not very long, 
and has given abundant satisfaction in most particulars. 
At the first glance, those who are familiar with our severe 
winds, but not with the working of this trellis, are much 
inclined to fear great damage from the whipping of the 
shoots, but, as a matter of fact, this serious difficulty is 
nearly overcome by the Munson trellis. It is one of the 
most vexing problems in the ordinary horizontal -arm train- 
ing, but the increased height of the trellis does not in- 
crease the trouble. On the other hand, the peculiar position 
occupied by the growing wood gives it almost complete im- 
munity. The green shoot is supported in two places near 
its base, while most of its length hangs free. Though it 
may swing in the wind, there is nothing against which it 
may strike, and so the damage is avoided. 

"Mr. Munson sets forth his ideas of the advantages of 
this system in Professor Bailey's ^American Grape Train- 
ing,' page 81. However, in our experience here, his sum- 
mary is unsatisfactory. Some of the advantages which he 
claims do not seem to be peculiar to this system of train- 
ing. Others are of slight importance. Those which are 
important ought to be more emphasized. In our experience 



MUNSON SYSTEM 485 

the chief advantages of the system are (1) that it greatly 
reduces the damage from the wind; (2) that it reduces 
damage by heat reflection from the soil; (3) that it saves 
summer tying. The first of these advantages has already 
been explained. Eegarding the second, it should be said 
that in this country, wherever bunches of fruit hang near 
the ground they are usually more or less dried out by the 
excessive reflection of heat from the soil during hot sum- 
mer days. The loss amounts to a great deal. A conser- 
vative estimate placed this loss at from ten to sixty per 
cent through this country last season, and in some ex- 
ceptional cases the crop was quite destroyed. With the 
fruit hanging five or six feet from the ground, and over- 
shadowed by a canopy of foliage at least two feet wide, 
this evil is evidently much mitigated. The young shoots 
do not need to be tied at all, but are left to swing freely 
from the support which is given at their bases. In most 
other systems summer tying is a considerable and expen- 
sive item. Some summer pruning usually has to be done, 
but this is much facilitated and probably reduced in abso- 
lute quantity by the Munson training. 

"Certain weak-growing varieties, like the well-known 
Delaware, do not find this trellis adapted to their needs. 
Many other circumstances may decide against its use ; but 
it is being widely adopted through this country, and there 
are many favorable reports from it in other states." 

Modified Munson.— "This system, which might 
better be termed the 'Alternate -Renewal' Mun- 
son, presents two advantages which the True 
Munson does not possess, and to my mind is 
preferable. It permits the bearing wood to be 
alternated from one side of the vine to the other, 
and is cheaper by one wire. 



486 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

"No middle wire is used, and a slat is tacked 
across the V in place of the slack wire. A fork 
is formed below the wire in Y- shape. From this 
fork a cane is trained to the right on one wire, 
and to the left on the other wire. A shoot on 
each cane, taken from a point near the wire, is 
trained in the opposite direction from, but on the 
same wire with, the cane, with which to renew the 
next season, when the bearing wood will be pruned 
to a spur, which in its turn will form a renewal 
shoot, and so on, alternately, the bearing canes 
extending always in opposite directions and on 
different wires, and alternating each year. The 
position of the vine the next season will simply 
be shifted or reversed. 

"Sometimes instead of six feet, the trellis is 
made only four feet high. This height appears 
to have done just as well as the other at the 
Georgia Station. Here, the V supports have been 
made of one -by -three slats. When the sharpened 
ends are dipped in coal tar, or even white lead, 
driven in the ground so that they will cross each 
other just above the surface and tacked with two 
tenpenny nails, a firm, durable and sightly sup- 
port is the result."* 

MISGELLANEO US S T STEMS 

Horizontal training. — There are very few 
types of horizontal -shoot training now in use. 



♦Hugh N. Starnes, Bull. 28, Ga. Exp. Sta. 270. 



HORIZONTAL MODES 487 

One of the best may be described. Two wires 
run from post to post, as in the ordinary trellis, 
one about two and one -half feet above the ground 
and the other five and one -half feet high. The 
posts are set at the ordinary distance of sixteen 
or eighteen feet apart. The vines are set six or 
eight feet apart, if Delawares or other weak 
growers. A strong stake is driven in the ground 
just behind each vine, standing as high as the 
top of the trellis. The permanent trunk or 
head of the vine stands about a foot high. The 
vine is renewed back to the top of this trunk 
every year. One cane is left at each pruning, 
which, when tied up to the stake, is as high as 
the trellis. From this perpendicular cane, the 
bearing shoots are carried out horizontally. 
About six of these shoots are allowed to grow 
upon either side of the cane. As the shoots 
grow, they are tied to perpendicular slats which 
are fastened on the wires. These slats do not 
touch the ground. Two slats are provided upon 
either side, making four to a vine. They stand 
a foot or fifteen inches apart. The clusters hang 
free from the horizontal shoots. If the shoots 
grow too long, they are pinched in when they 
have passed the second slat. While these shoots 
are covering the trellis, another shoot is taken 
out from the head or trunk of the vine, and 
without being allowed to fruit, is tied up along 
the <3entral stake. This shoot is to form the top 



488 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

next year, for all the present vine is to be en- 
tirely cut away at the winter's pruning. So the 
vine starts every spring with but a single cane. 

Excellent results are obtained from the slender- 
growing varieties by this method of training, but 
it is too expensive in trellis and in the labor of 
tying to make it generally practicable. Delaware, 
however, thrives remarkably well when trained in 
this fashion. 

Post training. — There are various methods of 
training to posts, all of which possess two ad- 
vantages — the saving of the expense of trellis and 
allowing of cultivation both ways. But they also 
have grave disadvantages, especially in the thick- 
ness of the head of foliage, which harbors rot 
and mildew and prevents successful spraying, 
and hinders the fruit from coloring and ripening 
well. These faults are so serious that post 
training is now little used for the American 
grapes. The saving in cost of trellis is not 
great, for more posts are required to the acre 
than in the trellis systems, and they do not en- 
dure long when standing alone with the whole 
weight of the vines thrown upon them. 

There are various methods of pruning for the 
stake training, but nearly all of them agree in 
pruning to side spurs on a permanent upright 
arm which stands the full height of the vine. 
There may be one or two sets of these spurs. 
We might suppose the Kniffin vine, shown in 



POST TRAINING 489 

Fig. 294, to be tied to a post instead of stretched 
on a trellis ; in that event, the fonr canes would 
hang at will, or they might be wrapped about 
the post, the shoots hanging out unsupported in 
all directions. The post systems are essentially 
Kniffin in principle, for the shoots hang free. 
In low styles of post training, the permanent 
head of the vine may be only three or four feet 
high. This head will have a ring of spurs on it, 
and at the annual pruning three to five canes 
are left with from six to ten buds each. 

The main trunk is usually tied permanently to 
the post. The canes left after pruning are va- 
riously disposed. Sometimes they are bent vip- 
wards and tied to the post above the head of the 
vine, but they are oftenest either wound loosely 
about the post, or are allowed to hang loose. 
Two trunks are frequently used to each post, 
both coming from the ground from a common 
root. These are wound about the post in oppo- 
site directions, one outside the other, and if the 
outside one is secured at the top by a small nail 
driven through it, or by a cord, no other tying 
will be necessary. Sometimes two or three posts 
are set at distances of one foot or more apart, 
and the vines are wrapped about them, but this 
only augments the size and depth of the mass 
of foliage. Now and then one sees a careful 
post training, in which but little wood is left 
and vigorous breaking out of shoots practiced, 



490 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

which gives excellent results ; but on the whole, 
post training cannot be recommended. The Euro- 
pean post and stake systems, or modifications of 
them, are yet occasionally recommended for Ameri- 
can vines, but under general conditions, especially 
in commercial grape growing, they rarelj' succeed 
long. One of the latest recommendations of any 
of these types is that of the single pole system of 
the Upper Rhine Valley, by A. F. Hofer, of Iowa, 
in a little treatise published in 1878. 

Arbors. — Arbors and bowers are usually 
formed with little reference to pruning and train- 
ing. The first object is to secure shade and se- 
clusion, and these are conditions which may 
seriously interfere with the production of fine 
grapes. As a rule, too much wood must be al- 
lowed to grow, and the soil about arbors is 
rarely ever cultivated. Still, fair results in fruit 
can be obtained if the operator makes a diligent 
use of the pruning shears. It is usually best to 
carry one main or permanent trunk up to the 
top or center of the arbor. Along this trunk at 
intervals of two feet or less, spurs may be left to 
which the wood is renewed each year. If the 
vines stand six feet apart about the arbor — which 
is a satisfactory distance — one cane three feet 
long may be left on each spur when the pruning 
is done. The shoots which spring from these 
canes will soon cover up the intermediate spaces. 
At the close of the season, this entire cane, with 



REMODELING OLD VINES 491 

its laterals, is cut away at the spur, and another 
three -foot cane— which grew during the season- 
is left in its place. This pruning is essentially 
that of the Kniffin vine in Fig. 294. Imagine 
this vine, with as many joints or tiers as neces- 
sary, laid upon the arbor. The canes are tied 
out horizontally to the slats instead of being tied 
on wires. This same system— running up a long 
trunk and cutting -in to side spurs— will apply 
equally well to tall walls and fences which it is 
desired to cover. Undoubtedly a better plan, so 
far as yield and quality of fruit is concerned, is 
to renew back nearly to the root, bringing up a 
strong new cane, or perhaps two or three every 
year, and cutting the old ones off ; but as the 
vines are desired for shade, one does not care to 
wait until midsummer for the vines to reach and 
cover the top of the arbor. 

Remodeling old vines.— Old and neglected 
tops can rarely be remodeled to advantage. If 
the vine is still vigorous, it will probably pay to 
grow an entirely new top by taking out a cane 
from the root. If the old top is cut back severely 
for a year or two, this new cane will make a vig- 
orous growth, and it can be treated essentially like 
a new or young vine. If it is very strong and 
ripens up well, it can be left long enough the first 
fall to make the permanent trunk ; but if it is 
rather weak and soft, it should be cut back in the 
fall or winter to two or three buds, from one of 



492 AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING, CONCLUDED 

which the permanent trunk is to be grown the 
second season. Thereafter, .the instructions which 
are given in the preceding pages for the various 
systems will apply to the new vine. The old 
trunk should be cut away as soon as the new one 
is permanently tied to the wires, — that is, at the 
close of either the first or second season of the 
new trunk. Care must be exercised to rub off all 
sprouts which spring from the old root or stump. 
If this stump can be cut back into the ground and 
covered with earth, better results may be expected. 
Old vines treated in this manner often make good 
plants, but if the vines are weak and the soil is 
poor, the trouble will scarcely pay for itself. 

These old vines can be remodeled easily by 
means of grafting. Cut off the trunk five or six 
inches below the surface of the ground, leaving an 
inch or two of straight wood above the roots. 
Into this stub insert two cions exactly as for cleft- 
grafting the apple. Cions of two or three buds, 
of firm wood the size of a lead pencil, should be 
inserted. The top bud should stand above the 
ground. The cleft will need no tying or wax, 
although it is well to place a bit of waxed cloth or 
other material over the wound to keep the soil out 
of it. Fill the earth tightl}^ about it. Great care 
must be taken in any pruning which is done this 
first year, or the cions may be loosened. If the 
young shoots are tied to a stake there will be less 
danger from wind and careless workmen. In the 



GRAFTING VINES 



493 



vine shown in the illustration (Fig. 313), no prun- 
ing or rubbing out was done, but the vine would 
have been in better shape for training if only 
one or two shoots had been allowed to grow. 




^1 v^ 



313. A good yearling graft. 

If it is desired, however, to keep the old top, it 
will be best to cut back the annual growth heavily 
at the winter pruning. The amount of wood 
which shall be left must be determined by the 
vigor of the plant and the variety, but three or 
four canes of six to ten buds each may be left at 
suitable places. During the next season a strong 
shoot from the base of each cane may be allowed 
to grow, which shall form the wood of the follow- 
ing season, while all the present cane is cut away 
at the end of the year, so that the bearing -wood 
is renewed each year, as in the regular systems 
of training. Much skill and experience are often 
required to properly rejuvenate an old vine ; and in 
very many cases the vine is not worth the trouble. 



Chaptee IX 



VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING 

The Old World grape, Viiis vinifera, is a dis- 
tinct species or type from the American grapes, 
and the methods of training and pruning which 
apply to the one may not apply to the other. 
We have already seen (Chapter VII.) that early 
American grape training was a transplantation 
of European methods. The Vinifera is the grape 
which is grown in the Pacific region for wine 
and raisins, and it is the grape of glass-houses. 

CALIFOBNIA PBACTICE* 

(F. T. BlOLETTi) 

The literature relating to the pruning and 
training of the vine is already very voluminous, 
but there seems to be no one work which treats 

*This account is founded on "Vine Pruning," by F. T. Bioletti, Bull. 
119, Oal. Exp. Sta., Dec, 1897, the bulletin being used for this purpose by 
permission. Unless otherwise stated, the chapter is a verbatim tran- 
scription of Bioletti's essay. Not all of the bulletin, however, is here 
reproduced. Some of the illustrations have been redrawn, and others 
have been reduced in size. The bulletin was reprinted in the "Cali- 
fornia Fruit-Grower," Jan. 15 to Feb. 5, 1898. 

Persons who are interested in the pruning and training of the wine 
or raisin grape in America should also consult Wickson's "California 
Fruits" and Eisen's "Raisin Industry." 

(494) 



CALIFORNIAN TRACTICE 495 

the subject in a thorough and convenient way 
for California vine -growers. Publications in 
English refer generally to methods suited to the 
Eastern states or to hot -house cultivation, while 
foreign publications, besides being more or less 
inaccessible, treat the subject so widely that the 
grower is at a loss what to choose from such a 
mass of material. It is the purpose of this 
bulletin, therefore, to present a brief summary 
of what in foreign methods seems useful and 
applicable to California conditions, together with 
the results of experiments on the University of 
California vine plots, and of observations made 
in numerous vineyards in various regions of the 
state. 

Almost every vine -growing district has its 
peculiar systems of training, ranging from the 
non- training usual in parts of Italy, where the 
vine spreads almost at will over trees planted for 
the purpose, to the acme of mutilation practiced 
in many localities where the vine is reduced to 
a mere stump barely rising above the surface of 
the ground. These various systems will not be 
discussed here, but only those which experience 
has shown to be most adapted to California con- 
ditions. 

No account, however detailed, of any system 
can replace the intelligence of the cultivator. 
For this reason the general principles of plant 
physiology which underlie all proper pruning 



496 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING 

and training are discussed in connection with the 
several systems described. This should aid the 
grower in choosing that system most suited to 
the conditions of his vineyard, and to modify it 
to suit special conditions and seasons. All the 
operations of pruning, tying, staking, etc., to 
which a cultivated vine owes its form, are con- 
veniently considered together. 

A description of a typical vine giving the names 
of the principal parts will make clear the accounts 
of methods to be given later. Fig. 314 repre- 
sents a vine of no particular order of pruning, 
showing the various parts. The main body of 
the vine (t) is called the trunk or stem ; the 
principal division (h) branches ; the smaller di- 
visions (a) arms, and the ultimate ramifications 
(c) shoots when green, and canes when mature. 
A shoot growing out of the vine above ground 
on any part older than one year (ws) is called a 
watersprout. Shoots coming from any part of 
the vine below ground (s) are called suckers. 
When a cane is cut-back to 1, 2, 3, or 4» eyes, it 
is called a spur (r). When a shoot or cane of 
one season sends out a secondary shoot the same 
season, the latter (I) is called a lateral. 

The Fig. 315 represents an arm of a vine as it 
appears in winter after the leaves have fallen. 
The canes (w-^) are the matured shoots of the 
previous spring, w^, w^, v^ represents two, three 
and four -year -old wood respectively. Near the 



TERMINOLOGY OF THE VINE 



497 



base of each cane is a basal bud or eye (b°). In 
counting the number of eyes on a spur, the basal 
eye is not included. A cane cut at k^, for in- 
stance, leaves a spur of one eye, at k^ a spur of 
two eyes, and so on. When more than four eyes 
are left, the piece is generally called a fruiting 
cane (Fig. 314,/). The canes (c,c^) coming from 




314. Diagram to illustrate terminology. 



two -year -old wood (w^) possess fruit buds ; that 
is, they are capable of producing fruit -bearing 
shoots. Watersprouts fwsj and suckers fsj do 
not ordinarily produce fruit -bearing shoots. Be- 
low the basal bud each cane has one or more dor- 
mant buds (b, Fig. 316), which do not grow unless 
the number of eyes left by pruning or frost is 
insufficient to relieve the excess of sap pressure. 
These buds produce sterile shoots. Each eye on 
a cane has at its base two dormant buds. One 
of these sometimes grows out the year it is 



FP 



498 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING 

formed, making a lateral {I, Figs. 314, 315). 
These laterals may send out secondary laterals 
{si, Fig. 314) . It is on the laterals and second- 
ary laterals that the so-called second and third 
crops are borne. 

Proper method of making cuts. — It is by no 
means a matter of indifference jnst where the cut 




315. Illustrating the parts of the vine. 

is made in removing a cane or arm. This 'will 
be made clearer by referring to Fig. 316. The 
upper part of the spur is represented as split in 
two longitudinally, in order to show the internal 
structure of the cane. It will be noted that at 
each bud there is a slight swelling of the cane. 
This is called a node, and the space between an 
internode. The internodes are filled with soft 
pith, but at each node there is a growth of hard 



WHERE TO CUT 



499 



wood extending through the cane. Now, if the 
cane be cut off at c^, in the middle of an inter- 
node, the pith will shrink away and leave a little 
hollow in which the rain collects. This is an ex- 
cellent breeding place for fungi and bacteria, 
which cause rotting of the pith and frequently 
kill the bud. If, on the contrary, the cane be cut 
at c^, through a node, a protecting cover of hard 
wood is left which is an effectual barrier against 
decay organisms. If a spur projects 
too far from the vine, and it is de- 
sirable to make it as short as pos- 
sible in order not to interfere with 
cultivation, it should be cut at c, 
and the cut made as nearly vertical 
as possible. This allows the water 
to run off, and leaves less pith to 
foster the growth of the fungi. At 
the base of the cane there is a slight 
enlargement (e). In removing a 
cane completely, the cut should be 
made just above this enlargement. 
This is the most favorable place for 
healing, as it makes the smallest 
possible wound, and does not leave make the cuts. 
a projecting stump of dead wood to 
prevent the healing tissues from closing over the 
wound. In removing a piece of older wood, as 
at K° and t^. Fig. 315, it is advisable not to cut 
too close for fear of injuring the spur by the dry- 




316. How to 



500 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING 

ing out of the wood. The projecting pieces of 
dead wood left in this way should be carefully 
removed the next year, in order to allow the 
wound to heal over. The large cuts which are 
thus occasionally necessary are most easily per- 
formed by means of a well-made and well- 
sharpened pair of two -hand pruning shears. 
These shears are often to be preferred to the ordi- 
nary one -hand shears, because they render the 
cutting through the nodes easier, and do away 
almost entirely with the necessity of a saw. Of 
course, a careless workman may split and injure 
vines seriously by using long -handled shears 
clumsily, but the bending of arms to facilitate 
cutting with the one -hand shears, often results 
in the same evil. The one -hand shears, however, 
are more convenient when many long fruiting 
canes are left, as the necessary trimming off of 
tendrils and laterals is more easily performed with 
them. 

Short and long pruning. — The winter -prun- 
ing of the vine consists in cutting off a certain 
amount of the mature wood of the immediately 
preceding season's growth (canes), and occa- 
sionally of the older wood. The main problem 
of winter -pruning, then, resolves itself into de- 
termining how much and what wood shall be left. 
In all kinds of pruning most of the canes are re- 
moved entirely. 

In short -pruning the remainder are cut back 



SHORT AND LONG PRUNING 501 

to spurs of one, two or three eyes. The number 
of spurs is regulated by the vigor and age of the 
vine. This mode of pruning can be used only 
for varieties in which the eyes near the base of 
the cane are fruitful. For all other cases long 
or half -long pruning is necessary. 

In half -long pruning, certain canes are left with 
from four to six eyes, according to the length 
of the internodes. These canes or fruit -spurs 
will bear more fruit than short spurs for three 
reasons : 1, because there will be more fruit- 
bearing shoots ; 2, because the upper eyes are 
more fruitful than the lower ; and 3, because a 
larger number of eyes being supplied with sap 
from the same arm, each shoot will be less vig- 
orous and therefore more fruitful. Owing, how- 
ever, to the tendency of the vine to expend the 
principal part of its vigor on the shoots farthest 
removed from the base of the canes, the lower 
eyes on the long spurs will generally produce 
very feeble shoots. In order, then, to obtain 
spurs of sufficient vigor for the next year's crop, 
it would be necessary to choose them near the 
ends of the long spurs of the previous year, if 
no others were left. This would result in a 
rapid and inconvenient elongation of the arms. 
In order to avoid this it is necessary to leave a 
spur of one or two eyes below each long -fruiting 
spur, that is to say, near the trunk. These 
short wood spurs having only one or two eyes, 



502 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING 

will produce vigorous canes for the following 
year, and the spurs which have borne fruit may 
be removed altogether, thus preventing an undue 
elongation of the arms. In half -long pruning, 
however, it is very hard to retain the proper 
equilibrium between vigor and fruitfulness. If a 
little too much wood is left the shoots from the 
wood spurs will not develop sufficiently, and the 
next year we have to choose between leaving 
small under -sized spurs near the trunk and spurs 
of proper size too far removed from the trunk. 
In long- pruning this difficult}', as will be seen, 
is to a great extent avoided. 

In long -pruning, the fruit spurs of half -long 
pruning are replaced by long fruit canes. These 
are left two or three feet long, or longer. The 
danger here that the vine will expend all its en- 
ergies on the terminal buds of these long canes 
and leave the eyes of the wood spurs undeveloped 
is still greater than in half -long pruning. This 
difficulty is overcome by bending or twisting the 
fruit canes in some manner. This bending 
causes a certain amount of injury to the tissues 
of the canes, which tends to check the flow of 
sap towards their ends. The sap pressure thus 
increases in the lower buds and forces them out 
into strong shoots to be used for spurs for the 
next pruning. The bending has the further effect 
of diminishing the vigor of the shoots on the fruit 
canes, and thus increasing their fruitfulness. 



THE YOUNG VINE 503 

This principle of increase of fruitfulness by 
mechanical injury is very useful if properly un- 
derstood and applied. It is a well-known fact 
that vines attacked by phylloxera or root -rot 
will for one year bear an exceptionally large 
crop on account of the diminution of vigor 
caused by the injury to their roots. A vine also 
which has been mutilated by the removal of 
several large arms will often produce heavilj^ the 
following year. In all these cases, however, the 
transient gain is more than counter -balanced by 
the permanent injury and loss. The proper ap- 
plications of the principle is to injure tissues 
only of those parts of the plant which it is in- 
tended to remove the next year (fruit canes), and 
thus increase fruitfulness without doing any per- 
manent injury to the plant. 

Pruning of young vines. — When a rooted 
vine is first planted, it should be cut back to 
two eyes. If the growth is not very good the 
first season, all the canes but one should be re- 
moved at the first pruning, and that one left 
with two or three eyes, according to its strength. 
The next year, or the same year in the case of 
strong growing vines in rich soil, the strongest 
cane should be left about twelve inches long and 
tied up to the stake. The next year two spurs 
may be left, of two or three eyes each. These spurs 
will determine the position of the head or place 
from which the arms of the vine spring. It is 



504 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING 

important, therefore, that they should be chosen 
at the right height from the ground. From 
ten to twenty inches is about the right height ; 
the lowest for dry hillsides, where there is no 
danger of frosts ; the highest for rich bottom 
lands, where the vine will naturally grow large. 
Vines grown without stakes will have to be 
headed lower than this in order to make them 
support themselves. In the following few j^ears 
the number of spurs should be increased grad- 
ually^, care being taken to shape the vine 
properly and to maintain an equal balance of the 
arms. 

In general, young vines are more vigorous than 
old, and tend more to send out shoots from 
basal and dormant buds. They should, there- 
fore, be given more and longer spurs in propor- 
tion than older vines. They also tend to bud 
out very early in the spring, and are thus liable 
to be frost-bitten. For this reason they are 
generally pruned late (March) in frosty loca- 
tions. This protects them in two ways. In the 
first place, in unpruned vines the buds near the 
ends of the canes start first and relieve the sap 
pressure, and though these are caught by the frost, 
the buds near the base, not having started, are 
saved. In the second place, the pruning being 
done when the sap is flowing, there is a loss of 
sap from the cut ends of the spurs, which further 
relieves the sap pressure and retards the starting 



MODES OF PRUNING 505 

of the lower eyes. This method of preventing 
the injury of spring frosts by very late pruning 
has been tried with bearing vines, but is very in- 
jurious. Older vines, being less vigorous are 
unable to withstand the heavy drain caused by 
the profuse bleeding which ensues ; and though 
no apparent damage may be done the first year, 
if the treatment is continued they may be com- 
pletely ruined in three or four years. 



Systems of Pruning 

The systems of pruning adapted to vineyards 
in California may be divided into six types, ac- 
cording to the form given to the main body of 
the vine and the length of the spurs and fruit- 
ing canes. 

A. Vine pruned to a head, with short arms. 

I. With spurs of two or three eyes only 

(short -pruning) . 
II. With wood spurs of one or two eyes and 
fruit spurs of four to six eyes (half- 
long pruning). 
III. With wood spurs of one or two eyes 
and long fruit canes (long -pruning). 

B. Vine with a long horizontal branch or con- 

tinuation of the trunk. 
IV. With spurs of two or three eyes only 
(short -pruning). 



506 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING 

V. Witli wood spurs of one or two eyes and 
fruit spurs of four to six eyes (half- 
long- pruning). 
VI. With wood spurs of one or two eyes 
and long fruit canes (long -pruning). 
These types are applicable to different varieties 
of vines, according — (1) To the natural stature of 
the vine — that is to say, whether it is a large or 
small grower and tends to make a large, extended 
trunk or a limited one. (2) To the position of 
the fruit -buds. In some varieties all the buds of 
the canes are capable of producing fruitful shoots, . 
while in others the one, two or three buds nearest 
the base produce only sterile shoots. (3) To the 
size of the individual bunches. It is necessary in 
order to obtain a full crop from a variety with 
small bunches, to leave a larger number of eyes 
than is necessary in the case of varieties with 
large bunches. 

What type or modification of a type shall be 
adopted in a particular instance, depends both on 
the variety of vine and on the nature of the vine- 
yard. A vine growing on a dry hillside must not 
be pruned the same as another vine of the same 
variety growing on rich bottom land. In general, 
vines on rich soil, where they tend to grow large 
and develop abundant vegetation, should be given 
plenty of room and allowed to spread themselves, 
and should be given plenty of fruiting -buds in 
order to control their too strong inclination to ^' go 



SHORT -PRUNING 



507 



to wood." Vines on poor soil, on the contrary, 
should be planted closer together and pruned 
shorter, or with fewer fruiting -buds, in order to 
maintain their vigor. 

Type I.— This is the ordinary short -pruning 
practiced in ninety per cent of the vineyards of 
California, and is the simplest and least expensive 
manner of pruning the vine. It is, however, 
suited only to vines of small growth, which pro- 




317. Epochs in the common short-pruning system. 

duce fruitful shoots from the lowest buds, and of 
which the bunches are large enough to admit of a 
full crop from the small number of buds which are 
left by this method. The chief objection to this 
method for heavily -bearing vines is that the 
bunches are massed together in a way that favors 
rotting of the grapes and exposes the different 
bunches unequally to light and heat. 



508 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING 

The Fig. 317 represents the simplest form of 
this style of pruning. The vine should be given 
as nearly as possible the form of a goblet, 
slightly fl.attened in the direction of the rows. It 
is important that the vine be kept regular and 
with equally balanced arms. This is the chief 
difficulty of the method, and calls for the ex- 
ercise of some judgment. From the first, the 
required form of the vine should be kept in 
view. On varieties with a trailing habit of 
growth, vertical spurs must be chosen, and 
with some upright growers it will be found 
necessary to choose spurs nearer the horizontal. 

The arms must be kept short for convenience of 
cultivation and to give them the requisite strength 
to support their crop without bending or breaking. 
For this reason the lowest of the two or three 
canes coming from last year's spur should be left. 
For instance, on Fig. 315 the cane should be cut 
at K^ or K^, according as two or three eyes are 
needed, and the rest of the arm removed at K°. 
As even with the greatest care some arms will 
become too long or project in wrong directions, it 
is necessary to renew them by means of canes 
from the old wood or watersprouts. For instance, 
if the other arm represented on Fig. 315 were too 
long, it should be removed and replaced by an- 
other developed from the cane (ws) . As the 
cane comes from three -year -old wood it cannot be 
depended on to produce grapes. For this reason 



SHORT -PRUNING 509 

it is best the first year to prune the arm at t, 
leaving a spur for fruit, and cut the watersprout 
at T°, leaving a wood spur of one eye. The next 
year the cane coming from the first eye of ws can 
be left for a fruit -spur, and the arm removed at 
T^. The cutting -back of an elongated arm 
should not be deferred too long, as the removal of 
old arms leaves large wounds, which weaken the 
vine and render it liable to attacks of fungi. 

In order to maintain the equilibrium of the 
arms, it is often necessary to prune back the more 
vigorous arms severely in order to throw the 
strength of the vine into the weaker arms. If 
the vine appears too vigorous, that is, if it ap- 
pears to be " going to wood" at the expense of the 
crop, two spurs may be left on some or all of the 
arms. In this case the upper spur should be cut 
above the third eye (k^, ^ig. 315), and the lower 
above the first or second (k^ or k^) . This will 
cause the bulk of the fruit to be borne on the 
upper spur, and the most vigorous shoots to be 
developed on the lower, which provides the wood 
for the following year. This is an approach to the 
next (half -long) method of pruning. 

[Professor Wickson sends me Fig. 318 as "a 
clear, satisfactory and characteristic view of the 
illimitable valley raisin extensions" of California. 

— L. H. B.] 

Type II. — Vines which require more wood than 
can well be given by ordinary short pruning, or 




u 

C3 
0) 

a 

-1-1 

-i-H 
03 

'eg 
,4 



o 
CO 



SHORT -PRUNING 



511 



of which the lower eyes are not sufficiently pro- 
ductive, may in some cases be pruned in the 
manner illustrated by Fig. 319. For some va- 
rieties it is necessary to leave spurs of only three 
eyes, as at s; for others, short canes of four or 
five eyes must be left, as at cc. These shorter 
spurs can be left without support, but the longer 
ones require some arrangement to prevent their 

c 

c 





319. Another type of 
short-pruning. 



320. Still longer pruning. 



bending over with the weight of fruit and de- 
stroying the shape of the vine. In some cases 
simply tying the ends of the canes together will 
support them fairly well, but it is better to 
attach them to a stake, and bend them at the 
base a little when possible, in order to retard the 
flow of sap to the ends. It is very necessary to 
leave strong spurs of one eye (not counting the 



512 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING 

basal eye) in order to provide wood for the fol- 
lowing year. At the pruning following the one 
represented in the cut, the fruiting part of the 
arms will be removed at A; A;, and a new fruiting 
spur or cane made of the cane which comes from 
the eye on the wood spurs w. The basal bud on 
w will in all probabilitv have produced a cane 
which can be cut back to one eye to furnish a 
new wood -spur. If this is not the case it shows 
that too much wood was left the first year, and 
therefore no fruit -cane should be left on this 
arm, but only a single spur of two or three eyes. 
This will be a return to short pruning, and must 
be resorted to whenever the small size of the 
canes or the failure to produce replac- 
ing wood near the head of the vine 
shows that the vigor is diminishing. If, 
on the contrary, the arm shows an abun- 
dance of vigorous canes, proving that 
the vine has not overborne, a fruit -cane 
may be left from one of the shoots 
coming from the lower buds of the 
fruit -cane c, and a new wood -spur of 
^„, ^ . two eyes left on the shoot coming 

321. Tymg "^ *=" 

the canes, from the wood-spur of the previous 

year (w) . In this case, the removal of 

the arm at k is deferred one year, and the extra 

vigor of the vine is made use of to produce an 

extra crop. 

Type III.— This style is an extension of the 




TYING THE CANES 513 

principles used in Type II, as will be understood 
by referring to Fig. 320. The fruiting canes 
are left still longer, and in some cases almost 
tlie full length of the cane. As each cane will 
thus produce a large amount of fruit, fewer arms 
are necessary than in the preceding method. It 
is especially necessary to leave good, strong spurs 
of one or two eyes to produce wood for the fol- 
lowing year. There are various methods of dis- 
posing of the long fruiting canes, the worst of 
which is to tie them straight up to the stake, as 
was recommended for the half -long canes. In 
the latter case, owing to their shortness, a 
certain amount of bending of the canes is pos- 
sible with this method of tying. With long 
canes, on the contrary, it usually allows of no 
bending, and as a result there ensues a vigorous 
growth of shoots at the ends of the fruiting 
canes, and little or no growth in the parts where 
it is necessary to look- for wood the following 
year. Often, indeed, each long cane will pro- 
duce only three shoots, and these from the three 
terminal eyes, all the other eyes of the cane 
remaining dormant. The object of long pruning 
is thus doubly defeated, 1st, because no more 
shoots are produced than by short pruning ; and 
2nd, because the shoots which should produce 
fruit are rendered especially vigorous by their 
terminal and vertical position, and therefore less 
fruitful. Each year all this vigorous growth of 

GG 



514 



VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING 



wood at the ends of the canes must be cut away 
in order to keep the vine within practical 
bounds, and the fruit -canes renewed from the 
less vigorous cane below. These canes are less 
vigorous because the main strength of the vine 
has been expended on the upper canes, which are 
most favorably placed for vegetative vigor. 
Vines treated in this way may be gradually 
exhausted, though producing only a moderate 




322. Another method of tying the canes. 



or small crop of fruit, by being forced to pro- 
duce an abundant crop of wood. 

One of the simplest ways of tying the fruiting 
canes is illustrated by Fig. 321. The canes are 
bent into a circle, the ends tied to the stake near 
the head of the vine, and the middle of the circle 
attached higher up. The tying should be done 
so that the cane receives a severe bend near the 
base — that is, about the region of the second and 
third eyes. This can usually be accomplished 



TYING THE CANES 515 

by tying the end of the cane first, and then press- 
ing down on the middle of the bow until the de- 
sired bend is attained. If two fruiting canes are 
left, they should be made to cross each other at 
right angles in order to distribute the fruit as 
equally as possible. As a rule, more than two 
canes should not be tied up in this way, as it 
makes too dense a shade, and masses the fruit 
too much. 

The Fig. 322 shows another method of tying 
the long canes. A horizontal wire is stretched 
along the row at about fifteen to twenty inches 
above the ground. To this the fruiting canes 
should be attached, using the same precaution 
of bending the canes near the bases. The upper 
part of the canes is not bent in this case as in the 
last, but the necessary diminution of vigor and 
increase of fruitfulness is brought about by the 
horizontal position. Two canes may be attached 
to the wire on each side. The stake is best used 
to support the shoots destined for the wood for 
the following year. This makes it possible, where 
topping is practiced, to cut off the ends of the 
shoots from the fruiting canes, and to leave the 
rest their full length. Another, or even two 
other wires, may be used above the first for more 
canes, but this is seldom profitable, and consider- 
ably increases the cost, both of installation and 
of pruning. 

This style of pruning is especially favorable to 



516 VINIPERA GRAPE TRAINING 

varieties of small growth, which bear small 
bunches, and principally on the upper eyes, and 
to varieties of larger growth in hilly or poor soils. 
One of its main objections is that ■ it renders 
some varieties more liable to sunburn. 

It will be noticed that the long -pruned vines 
are represented in the figures as having much 
fewer arms than the short -pruned. This is 
necessary and important. In order to maintain 
a well-balanced vine, and keep it under control, 
there should be only about as many arms as long 
canes, or at most one or two more. 

[The views in Figs. 323, 324 show the long- 
pruning or ^^ pruning to a high stake." They 
are supplied by Professor Wickson. — l. h. b.] 

Types IV., V. and VI. — The three styles of 
pruning so far described have been fairly thor- 
oughly tested in California, and each has been 
found applicable to certain varieties and conditions. 
There are some varieties, however, which do not 
give good results with amy of these systems. This 
is the case with many valuable table grapes, espe- 
cially when grown in rich valley soil, where they 
should do best. For these cases some modification 
of the French cordon system is to be recom- 
mended. Little trial of this method has been made 
as yet, but what has been done is very promising. 
The tendency of many grapes to coulure is over- 
come, and rich soils are made to produce crops in 
proportion to their richness. The method consists 




323. Long-pruning, before the vines are trimmed. 




324. Long-pruning, after tlie vines are trimmed. 



518 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING 

essentially in allowing the vine to grow in a more 
or less horizontal direction for several feet, thus 
giving a larger body and fruiting surface. 

The treatment of the young vines the first year 
is the same as for head -pruning, as already de- 
scribed. As soon as the young vine produces a 
good, strong shoot it is tied up to the wire and to 
the stake which is placed between the vines in the 
rows. Each vine should finally reach its neighbor, 
but it requires two or three years for this if the 
vines are six or seven feet apart in the rows. It is 
possible, by cutting the vine back nearly to the 
ground for the first year or two, to obtain a cane 
which will stretch the whole distance between the 
vines at the first tying up; but this is not neces- 
sary nor advisable. Neither is it advisable to 
make a very sharp angle (almost a right angle), as 
is usually done in regular cordon pruning, on 
account of the difficulty of preventing the vine 
from sending out an inconvenient number of shoots 
at the bend. The vine might be grown with two 
branches, one stretching in either direction, but 
this has been found inconvenient on account of the 
difficulty of preserving an equal balance of the 
branches. The direction in which the vine is 
trained should be that of the prevailing high 
winds, as this will minimize the chances of shoots 
being blown off. When the cordon or body of the 
vine is well -formed, it may be pruned with all the 
modifications of short, half -long and long -pruning 



CORDON VINES 



519 



already described in head -pruning, and the same 
precautions are necessary to preserve the balance 
and symmetry of the vine and to maintain it at 
the highest degree of fruitfulness without unduly 
exhausting it. 




325. Training short-pruned cordons. 




326. Training of long-pruned cordons. 



The Figs. 325 and 326 will sufficiently illustrate 
the way of shaping and tying short and long- 
pruned vines. For some table grapes, extension 
of the method shown in Fig. 325 in the direction 
of half -long pruning is useful. On a heavy soil 
the short spurs do not provide sufficient outlet for 



520 



VINlFiERA GRAPE TRAINING 



the vigor of the vine, while long -pruning would 
unduly increase the number of bunches on a sin- 
gle cane, and so reduce their size, which would 
deteriorate from their value as table grapes. 

The Fig. 327 represents a style of pruning used 
with success in some of the richest low -lying soils 
of France. The body of the vine raised up to a 
height of two and a -half or three feet above the 
soil, a useful means of lessening the danger from 
spring frosts. The fruit -canes are bent vertically 




327. Drooping training of long-pruned cordons. 



downward, thus restricting the flow of sap suffi- 
ciently to force out the lower buds of the fruit- 
canes into strong shoots, which can be used for 
fruit canes of the following year. This does away, 
to some extent, with the necessity of leaving 
wood -spurs, and much simplifies the pruning. 
Arms, of course, are formed in time, and very 
gradually elongate, so that it is necessary to 
remove one occasionally and replace it by a 



SUMMER TREATMENT 521 

water- sprout, as already explained under short- 
pruning. 

Summer Pruning 

Some form of summer or green pruning is 
practised in most California vineyards, if in the 
term we include all the operations to which the 
green shoots are subjected. There seems, how- 
ever, to be little system used, and very little 
understanding of its true nature and object. In 
general, it may be said that green pruning of 
the vine is least needed, and is often harmful in 
warm, dry locations and seasons, and of most use 
under cool and damp conditions. 

The principal kinds of green pruning are: 1, 
Pinching; 2, Suckering and Sprouting; 3, Top- 
ping; 4, Removal of Leaves. 

Pinching consists in removing the extreme 
growing tip of a young shoot. It is necessary 
to remove only about half an inch to accomplish 
the purpose of preventing further elongation of 
the shoot, as all growth in length takes place at 
the extreme tip. The immediate result of pinch- 
ing is to concentrate the sap in the leaves and 
blossoms of the shoots, and finally to force out 
the dormant buds in the axils of the leaves. It 
has been found useful in some cases to combat 
coulure or dropping with heavy -growing varie- 
ties, such as the Clairette Blanche. It is also of 
use in preventing unsupported shoots from be- 



522 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING 

coming too long while still tender, and being 
broken oif by the wind. It can, of course, be 
used only on fruiting shoots, and not on shoots 
intended for wood for the following year. 

SuCKERiNG is the removal of shoots that have 
their origin below or near the surface of the 
ground. The shoots should be removed as 
thoroughly as possible, the enlargement at the 
base being cut off in order to destroy the dor- 
mant basal buds. An abundant growth of suckers 
indicates either careless suckering of former years 
(which has allowed a mass of buds below the 
ground, a kind of subterranean arm, to develop), 
or too limited an outlet for the sap. The latter 
may be due to frost or other injuries to the upper 
part of the vine, but is commonly caused by too 
close pruning. 

Sprouting is the removal of sterile shoots or 
" watersprouts" from the upper part of the vine. 
Under nearly all circumstances this is an un- 
necessary and often a harmful operation, especially 
in warm, dry locations. An exception may per- 
haps be made under some conditions of varieties 
like the Muscat of Alexandria, which has a strong 
tendency to produce " watersprouts" which, grow- 
ing through the bunches, injure them for table 
and drying purposes. 

Watersprouts are produced from dormant buds 
in the old wood, and as these buds require a higher 
sap pressure to cause them to start than do the 



SUMMER TREATMENT 523 

fruitful buds, the occurrence of many water - 
sprouts indicates that too limited a number of 
fruitful buds has been left upon the vine to 
utilize all the sap pumped up by the roots. To 
remove these watersprouts, therefore, while they 
are young is simply to shut off an outlet for the 
superabundant sap, and thus to injure the vine 
by interfering with the water equilibrium, or to 
cause it to force out new watersprouts in other 
places. Any vigorous vine will produce a certain 
number of watersprouts, but they should not be 
looked upon as utterly useless and harmful, be- 
cause they produce no grapes. On the contrary, 
if not too numerous, they are of positive advan- 
tage to the vine, being so much increase to the 
feeding surface of green leaves. Watersprouts 
should be removed completely during the winter 
pruning, and the production of too many the next 
year prevented by a more liberal allowance of 
bearing wood. 

Topping, or cutting off the ends of shoots, is 
done by a means of a sickle or long knife. At 
least two or three leaves should be left beyond the 
last bunch of grapes. The time at which the 
topping is done is very important. When the 
object is simply to prevent the breaking of the 
heavy, succulent canes of some varieties by the 
wind, or to facilitate cultivation, it must, of 
course, be done early, and is well replaced by 
early pinching. These objects are, however, bet- 



524 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING 

ter attained by appropriate methods of planting 
and training. Early topping is inadvisable be- 
cause it induces a vigorous growth of laterals, 
which make too dense a shade, and it may even 
force the main eyes to sprout, and thus injure the 
wood for the next year. The legitimate function 
of topping is to direct the flow of food material 
in the vine first into the fruit, and second into 
the buds for the growth of the following year. 
If the topping is done while the vine is in active 
growth, this object is not attained ; one growing 
tip is simply replaced by several. In this way, in 
rich, moist soils vines are often, by repeated top- 
pings, kept in a continual state of production of 
new shoots, and as these new shoots consume 
more food than they produce, the crop suffers. 
Not only does the crop of the current year suffer, 
but still more the crop of the following year, for 
the vine devotes its energy to producing new 
shoots in the autumn instead of storing up reserve 
food -material for the next spring growth. If, on 
the other hand, the topping is done after all leaf 
growth is over for the season, the only effect is 
to deprive the vine of so much food -absorbing 
surface. 

The topping, then, should be so timed that, 
while a further lengthening of the main shoot 
is prevented, no excessive sprouting of new lat- 
erals is produced. The exact time differs for 
locality, season and variety, and must be left 



THE DIFFERENT VARIETIES 525 

to the experience and judgment of the individual 
grower. 

Removal of leaves.— In order to allow the 
sun to penetrate to and aid the ripening of late 
grapes, it is often advisable late in the season to 
lessen the leafy shade of the vine. This should 
be done by removing the leaves from the center of 
the vines, and not by cutting away the canes. In 
this way only those leaves are removed which are 
injurious, and as much leaf surface as possible is 
left to perform the autumn duty of laying up 
food -material for the spring. The removal of 
leaves should not be excessive, and if consider- 
able, should be gradual, otherwise there is danger 
of sunburn. It is best, first, to remove the leaves 
from below the fruit. This allows free circulation 
of the air and penetration of the sun's rays, which 
warm the soil and are reflected upon the fruit. 
This is generally sufficient, and in any case only 
the leaves in the center of the vine, and especially 
those which are beginning to turn yellow, should 
be removed. 

Classification of the Varieties 

In the list of varieties which follows, an at- 
tempt has been made to indicate the mode of 
pruning which is likely, in the light of our pres- 
ent knowledge, to give the best results for each 
variety. It should be understood, however, that 



526 VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING 

it is to some extent tentative and provisional. 
Many of the varieties have proved successful in 
certain soils and locations when pruned in the 
way indicated, but others have never, so far as 
we know, been tested in the way proposed. As 
these latter, however, have proved more or less 
unsuccessful under the common methods of treat- 
ment, the method proposed is the one which 
seems most suitable to their habit and general 
characters. It seems probable that the tendency 
to coulure of some varieties, such as the Muscat, 
Malbeck, Merlot, Clairette, etc., can be com- 
batted to a great extent by appropriate methods 
of pruning and training. Unevenness of ripen- 
ing and liability to sunburn of Tokay, Zinfandel, 
etc., can doubtless be controlled by the same 
means. 

Very few varieties succeed under strictly short- 
pruning, that is, cutting back to one and two 
eyes, so that for most of the varieties in the 
first category, the modification of short -pruning 
which gives fruit -spurs of three or four eyes 
and wood -spurs of one eye is recommended. 

Type I. — Charbono, Cinsaut, Mataro, Carig- 
nane, Grenache, Petit and Alicante Bouschet, 
Aramon, Mourastel, Verdal, Ugni-blanc, Folle- 
blanche. Burger, Zinfandel, Griiner Velteliner, 
Peverella, Zierfahndler (?), Rother Steinschiller 
(on poor soils), Slankamenka, Green Hungarian 
(on poor soils), Blue Portuguese (on poor soils), 



DIFFERENT VARIETIES 527 

Tinta Amarella, Moscatello flno, Pedro Ximenes, 
Palomino, Beba ('?), Peruno, Mantuo, Mourisco 
Branco, Malmsey, Mourisco Pre to, Feher Szagos, 
Muscat of Alexandria, Barbarossa. 

Type II. — St. Macaire, Beclan (longer or 
shorter, according to richness of soil), Teinturier 
male, Mondeuse, Marsanne, Chasselas, Muscatel, 
Grosse Blaue, Sauvignon Blanc, Sauvignon Vert, 
Nebbiolo, Fresa, Aleatico. 

Type III. — Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet 
Franc (on poor soils and hillsides), Verdot, Tan- 
nat, Gamai Teinturier, Gros Mansenc, Pinots, 
Meunier, Gamais, Pinot Blanc, Pinot Chardonay, 
Rulander, Aifenthaler, Johannisberger, Franken 
Riesling (on hillsides), Kleinberger, Traminer, 
Walschriesling, Rothgipfler, Lagrain (? perhaps 
short), Marzemino, Blue Portuguese (on rich 
soils), Barbera, Moretto, Refosco, Tinta de Ma- 
deira, Tinta Cao, Verdelho, Boal, Sultanina, 
Sultana.* 

Type IV. — Green Hungarian, Rother Stein- 
schiller (on rich soils), Neiretta, Mission, West's 
Prolific, Robin Noir. 

Type V. — St. Macaire and Mondeuse (on rich 
bottom soils), Tinta Valdepenas, Marsanne, 
Claire tte Blanche, Semillon, Sauvignon Blanc 
(on rich soils), Muscadelle du Bordelais, Ver- 



*In the original, Sultanina and Sultana are in the list of short- 
pruned varieties, but I am informed by the California Experiment 
Station that they should be placed with the long-pruned varieties. 



528 



VINIFERA GRAPE TRAINING 



V 



naccia Bianca, Furmint Bakator, 
Tadone, Gros Colman, Black Mo- 
rocco (?), Cornichon (?), Emperor, 
Tokay (1), Almeria, Pizzutello, Cal- 
ifornia Black Malvoisie. 

Type VI.— Malbec, Petite Sirah 
and Serine, Cabernet Sauvignon 
and Cabernet Franc (on rich bottom 
soils), Merlot, Gros Mansenc (? on 
rich bottom soils), Chauche Noir, 
Bastardo, Tronsseau, Ploussard, 
Etraie de I'Adhni, Chauche Gris, 
Franken Riesling (on rich soils). 



GLASS-HOUSE PBACTICE 



\;V 



328. Old arm 
•with short spurs. 



There are many systems of train- 
ing vines in graperies. In fact, 
nearly every gardener has a mode 
or a method of his own, which he 
insists is better than all others ; 
and this is proof that many systems 
are equally good. In general, the 
vine is trained to one arm, which 
extends from the ground to the 
top of the house. From the sides 
of this arm, spurs are taken out ; 
and these spurs are cut back each 
year to one or two buds. Fig. 328 
shows a part of an arm after prun- 



GLASS-HOUSE PRACTICE 



529 



ing, with the very short spurs. Some growers 
prefer to have longer spurs, as in Fig. 329. It 




Long-spur pruning. 



is generally desired to have an alternation of fruit- 
bearing on these spurs. This is done by pinch- 
ing the flower clusters from some of the shoots, 
or by cutting to a strong or fruit -bearing bud 
on one spur, and to a weak or barren bud at 



HH 



530 



VlNlPERA GRAPE TRAINING 



the very base of the other. The weak bud 

gives only a shoot ; but the next year it is cut 

to a strong bud and the 
neighboring spur is cut 
to a weak one. 

The vine in Fig. 329 
has spurs in pairs. The 
one on the left has 
already been cut six 
times. The pruning of 
this vine is explained 
in Fig. 330. The former 
prunings are marked by 
the letters. A more de- 
tailed view of an old 
spur is given in Fig. 
331. 

It is generally best to 
prune the vines as soon 
as the fruit is off, there- 
by allowing the vines 
to be protected during 

the winter, and destroying the lodging places of 

insects and fungi. 




330. The spurs pruned. 




An old spur. 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Adlum, quoted 391, 393 

Almond, fruit-bearing 74 

Althaea 338,340 

Anderson, A. K., quoted 382 

Apple, fruit-buds 22, 30, 69 

— leaf -bud 27, 69 

— flowers 55 

— pruning and references 309 

— root-pruning 248 

Apples, dwarf 278 

— experiments on 103 

Apricot, fruit-bearing 50, 74 

— pruning and references 310 

Arbor Knififin 474 

Arbors, of grapes 490 

Arches 351 

Arm, defined 404 

Ash logs 86 

Azalea 340 

Bacteria in wounds 92 

Balmer, quoted 187, 215, 308 

Barberry 340 

Bark-bound 78 

Bark, expansion of 76 

Barns, William D 402 

grape training, 466 

quoted 296 

Bast, for tying 428 

Beach, quoted 328, 331 

Bearing year 176 

Bellair, Gr. A., quoted 363 

Bending 167 

Bioletti, F. T., quoted 494 

Blackberry, fruit-bearing 64, 75 

— pruning 323 

Bleeding 103, 413 



PAGE 

Bois, D,, quoted 355 

Bolting trees 125 

Bordeaux Mixture for wounds. .109, 
119, 121 

Borers, injury by 122 

Brambles, fruit-bearing 63 

Brehaut, quoted 364 

Bridge-grafting 120 

Brunk, T, L., quoted 236. 240 

Buehatt, on ringing 285 

Bud, cutting near 221 

Budd, Professor, quoted 145 

Budded trees 263 

Burning prunings 308 

Burroughs, on ringing 296 

Bushes, pruning 195, 335 

Butternut, fruit-bearing 72 

California 200, 215, 308, 310 

— - vine pruning 494 

Callus 83 

— on roots 233 

Cambium 82 

Candelabrum 358 

Cane, defined 404 

Card, on pruning 185 

— quoted 113 

Caywood system 474 

Chautauqua training 434, 439 

Cheal, J., quoted 349 

Checking growth 162 

Chemical analyses 178 

Cherry, black 9 

— fruit-spur 46, 74 

— pruning and references 313 

-split 122 

— struggle for existence in. . . .7, 11 



(533) 



534 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Cherry, wild 7 

Chestnut, fruit-bearing 72, 75 

Chisels for pruning 115, 302 

Clematis 340 

Climate and pruning. . .185, 187, 199 

Coal-tar for wounds Ill 

Coates, quoted 115 

Come-alongs 420 

Conifers, pruning 140 

Copings for fruits 350 

Co-terminal fruit-bearing 59, 74 

Corbett, quoted 233, 402 

Cordon 342, 343, 357 

Cornell, W. T 458 

Cornell, root-pruning at 240 

Crab, flowering 340 

— pruning 15 

Crittenden system 476 

Cross-wire system 477 

Crotches 125 

Currant, fruit-bearing 56, 66, 74 

— pruning 327, 340 

Cutting-back 95, 157, 

174, 180, 195, 205 

Dendroscope 303 

Des Cars, quoted 100, 111, 302 

Devitalizing by pruning 4 

Devol, W. S., quoted 306 

Dewberry, fruit-bearing 64, 75 

— pruning 323 

Dextrine 179 

Downing, A. J., quoted 151 

Dressings 84, 89, 109, 190 

Drooping grape training 458 

Du Breuil, quoted 343, 368 

Dufour, quoted 395 

Duggar, B. M., quoted 90 

Dwarfing 227 

Dwarfs, management of 269 

Eisen, book by 494 

Elder 340 

Elm, growth of bark 76 

Elms, inarched 388 

Espalier. . ., .342, 343, 357 



PAGE 

Evergreens, pruning 140, 150 

Exochorda 340 

Fan training 455 

Farlow, W. F., quoted 129 

Fences, for fruits 351 

Filbert, fruit-bearing 72, 74 

Fisher, on ringing 286 

Florida freezes 147 

Form of top 193 

Forsythia 340 

Freezing, splitting by 122 

Frozen trees, repairing 141 

— wood 107 

Fruit-bud 21, 27, 68 

Fruit-spur 30 et seq_ 

Fuller, grape training 391 

Fungi of wounds 92 

Garden and Forest, quoted 337 

Gardeners' Chronicle, quoted. . .384 

Gaucher, quoted 284 

Girardin's grafts 345 

Girdles, repairing 120 

Girdling 17, 116. 119, 

162, 163, 167, 281 

Glass-house grape training 528 

Gnawed trees 122 

Goblet training 368 

Goessmann, on ringing 285 

Goff, E. S., quoted 144 

Gooseberries, training 384 

Gooseberry, fruit-bearing 56, 74 

— pruning 327 

Grafted trees 263 

Grafting vines 492 

— wounds 120 

Grape, fruit-bearing 63, 75 

— ringing 284 

— training 390 

— young plant 210, 411 

Grapes, frozen 149 

Graperies 528 

Green, Professor, quoted 145 

Habit of fruit-bearing 163 

Hale, J. H., quoted 262, 316 



INDEX 



535 



PAGE 

Hardy, J. A., quoted 361 

Harris, J. S., quoted 145 

Hartwig, quoted 364 

Haviland, Sands 474 

Hazel, fruit-bearing 72, 74 

Heading-in 96, 157, 

174, 180, 195, 205 

Healing of wounds 76, 189 

Hedges 333 

Hemlock knots 79 

Henderson, quoted 167 

Hewett, B. W., quoted 146 

Hickory, fruit-bearing 61,72, 75 

— log 87 

High renewal 441 

HirscMnger, C, quoted 146 

Hofer, A. F 490 

Horizontal arm 437 

— training 486 

Hudson, R., girdling 293 

Husks, for tying 428 

Hydrangea 338, 340 

Inarching 120, 388 

Indian Riv. Advocate, quoted . . 147 

Iowa 145 

Iron, sulfate of 344, 347 

Johnson, S. W., quoted 393 

Juneberry, fruit-bearing 56 

Kalmia 340 

Kellogg, Gt. J., quoted 146 

Kerria 340 

Kieffer pear, treatment of 159 

Knife 298 

— ringing 295 

Kniffin, William 459 

Kniffin training 432, 460 

Knisely, quoted 178 

Knot-holes 81 

Knots 79 

Koopmann, K., quoted 169 

Label wires 116 

Leader 150 

Lichen on trees Ill 

Lilac, pruning 336, 840 



PAGE 

Lilac shoot 1 

Lindley, quoted 284 

Lodeman, on grape training 402 

— quoted 278 

Loquat, fruit-bearing 75 

Lord, O. M., quoted 145 

Macomber, J. T., quoted 384 

Magnolia 340 

Maple, fruit-bearing 59 

— log 88 

— tapping 85 

Marvin, D. S., quoted 457 

Mask, pruning 307 

Medlar, fruit-bearing 75 

Meehan's Monthly, quoted 140 

Mending trees 116 

Minnesota 145 

Mock orange 336, 340 

Moss on trees Ill 

Mulberry, fruit-bearing 75 

Munson training 480 

My ticuttah shears 304 

Nectrias 94 

Nefe, J. B., quoted 310 

Notching 167, 169 

Oak knots 79 

Obstructions to sap 161, 167 

Olive, fruit-bearing 75 

Opoix, quoted 170 

Orange, fruit-bearing 75 

— pruning 314 

Oranges, frozen 147 

Ornamental plants 335 

Overbearing 165 

Overhead grape training 474 

Paint for wounds 109, 113, 190 

Peach, fruit-bearing 50, 74 

— pruning and references 315 

— root-pruning 245 

— twig of 95 

Peaches, laying down 384 

Pear, fruit-spur 40, 74 

— pruning and references ...... 319 

— root-pruning 230, 245 



536 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Pear twigs, swellings on 178 

Pear-blight 122 

Pears, dwarfs 271 

Pentosans 179 

Persimmon, fruit-bearing 75 

Philips, A. J., quoted 146 

Physiology of pruning 13 

Pine, girdled 117 

Plains, pruning on the .144, 185, 199 

Plashing 334 

Plugging cavities 124 

Plum, fruit-spur 46, 74 

— headed-in 195 

— pruning and references 320 

— root-pruning 247 

Polyporus sulphureus 94 

Pome-fruits 189 

Poplars, fruit-bearing 71 

Positions of fruit-buds 74 

Post training 488 

Pots, trees in 374 

Powell, Quoted 313 

Prairie Farmer, quoted 418 

Price, R. H., quoted 236 

Principles of pruning 133 

Prunus serotina, wound on 94 

Punk-fungus 94 

Pyramids 342, 356 

Quince, fruit-bearing 60, 75 

— pmning and references 322 

Raffia 426 

Raspberry, fruit-bearing 64, 75 

— pruning 323 

Reasons for pruning 135 

Reducing sugar 179 

Reid, E. W., quoted 306 

Rejuvenating trees 139 

Renewal, defined 410 

Rhododendron 340 

Ringing 17, 281 

Rivers, on pot trees 382 

— on pyramids 358 

— on root-pruning 230 

Robbers 155 



PAGE 

Root-pruning 138, 227 

Rose, flower-bearing 67 

Roses, pruning 137, 336, 340 

Rural New-Yorker, quoted.. 121, 307 

Sargent, C. S., quoted 100 

Saws 300 

Scaffold limbs 204 

Schizophyllum commune 94 

Scraping trees 121 

Season for pruning 181 

Shade trees, pruning 333 

Shaping the top 222 

Shears 298, 301 

Shellac for wounds 109 

Shoot, defined 404 

Shredding 167 

Shrubs, pruning 195, 335 

Snow, Geo. C 402 

Snowball 340 

Sorauer, quoted 154, 182 

Spencer, John W. . .402, 424, 428, 434 

Spirea, pruning 336, 340 

Splitting of trunks 122 

Spur 30 et seq. 

— defined 410 

Standard 342 

Starch in twigs 179 

Starnes, H. N., quoted 402, 486 

Stone-fruits 189 

Straw, for tying 428 

Strawberry, trimming 304 

Street trees, injuries to 129 

Stringf ellow system 236 

Stripping vines 414 

Stub-root pruning 236 

Subsequent treatment 250 

Suckers 155 

Sugar, reducing 179 

Sulfate of iron 344, 347 

Summer pruning 140, 181 

Sun-scald 122, 185 

Tallow for wounds 109 

Tamarisk 338, 340 

Tap-hole 85 



INDEX 



537 



PAGE 

Tap-root 151 

Tar for wounds 109 

Thinning the fruit 174 

Thomas, quoted 391 

Thomson, quoted 365 

Tools 297 

Top, form of 193 

Top-worted trees 263 

Training, specific modes 341 

Transplanting, root-pruning at.. 232 

Trellis, for grapes 416 

Trunk, expansion of 76 

Twisting 167 

Tying grapes 426 

Umbrella training 469 

Upright grape training 436 

Van Dusen, H. P., quoted 469 

Vase 356 

Veitch, quoted 384 

Viburnum 340 

Vines, grafting 492 

Vineyard, layout of 424 

Vinifera grape training 494 

Vitis vinifera 494 

Walker, E., qiioted 137, 336 

Walls for fruits 348 

Walnut, fruit-bearing 72, 75 

— Japanese 103 

Warneken, quoted 376 



PAGB 

Washington 187, 216 

Waters' pruner 301 

Watersprouts 155 

Waugh, quoted 483 

Wax for wounds 109 

— recipe for 119 

Weeping of rines 413 

Weigela 340 

When to prune 102, 181, 189 

Whitf ord, Leroy, quoted 121 

Why we prune 135 

Wickson, quoted 200, 315, 494, 

509, 516 

Williams, H. S., quoted 147 

Willow, Kilmarnock 269 

Willows, for tying 427 

— fruit-bearing 71 

Winter-injured trees 141 

Winter-killed buds 73 

Wire, for tying 428 

— for vineyards 419 

Wire-stretchers 420 

Wisconsin 144, 146 

Wool twine, for tying 427 

Wound, how to make 99, 114 

— nature of 82 

Yeomans, on pruning 221, 272 

Young trees, trimming 205 



Th^ Hural Stxtntt Stxxm. 

Edited by Professor L. H. Bailey. 

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and Increasing of the Productivity of the Soil. By 

I. P. Roberts, Director of the College of Agriculture, Cornell 
University. 440 pages; fully illustrated. $1.25 



TiTB ^uraT S>txtntt Stxits. 

Edited by Professor L. H. Bailey. 

THE SPR AYING OF PLANTS: a sueeinct Ae- 

~~~" — ■ count of the 

History, Principles and Practice of the Application of 
Liquids and Powders to Plants for the Purpose of 
Destroying Insects and Fungi. By E. a. Lodeman, late 
Instructor in Horticulture in the Cornell University. 399 
pages, 92 illustrations. $1.00 

The only complete manual of the spraying of plants, and the 
standard work upon the subject. The first part is a complete his- 
tory of the rise of spraying, both in this country and abroad. 
There are also full illustrated accounts of pumps and nozzles, 
complete recipes of formulas, and the like. The second part, com- 
prising 135 pages, is an alphabetical illustrated account of the 
various insects and fungi, with methods of treating them. The 
book as a whole is not only a complete monograph upon the sub- 
ject, but a most valuable manual of practice. 

" I have looked it carefully over with a great deal of interest, and feel that 
it is a very timely book, and one that can be safely recommended to all horti- 
culturists and fruit-growers as the best." Pres. H. H. Goodell, 

Massachusetts Agricultural College, 
Amherst, Mass. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING: 

By Professor L. H. Bailey. 520 pages, 114 illustrations. $1.25 

This book is designed to treat all those underlying matters of 
fruit-growing which are common to most or all of the various 
fruits. The author in x>reparing a monograph iipon the Apple, 
concluded that it would serve the purpose of his readers better 
if all the essentials of fruit-growing were placed in a separate and 
initial volume. He has, therefore, delayed the preparation of the 
Apple book for the present. 

" The Principles of Fruit-Growing" is a unique book, and brings 
the very best science of the day to join hands with the best prac- 
tice. It includes illustrations of every important operation, and 
may be taken as a consensus of the opinions and methods of the 
most successful growers. The contents are as follows : Intro- 
ductory Discussion, comprising an inventory and classification of 
fruits, the fruit zones, the outlook for fruit-growing ; the Location 
and Its Climate, with a fviU discussion of frosts ; the Tilling of 
Fruit Lands ; the Fertilizing of Fruit Lands ; the Planting of 
Orchards ; Secondary Care of Orchards ; Diseases, Insects and 
Spraying; Picking and Packing and Storing Fruits, Shipping, etc ; 
and a bibliography of American writings on the subject. 



Th^ ^ural Stuntt SjerxBS^ 

Edited by Professor L. H. Bailey. 

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS: a Treatise upon 

the Natupe and 

Qualities of Dairy Milk, and the Manufacture of But- 
ter and Cheese. By Henry H. Wing, Assistant Professor 
of Dairy Husbandry in the Cornell University. 280 pages, 
33 illustrations. $1.00 

This is the only book which adequately covers the whole field of 
dairying. Its range is indicated by the table of contents : Secre- 
tion of Milk ; Composition of Milk ; Testing of Milk ; Ferments 
and Fermentations of Milk, and their Control; Market Milk ; Sep- 
aration of Cream ; Ripening of Cream ; Churning ; Finishing and 
Marketing Butter ; Milk for Cheese-Making ; Cheddar Cheese- 
Making ; Varieties of Cheese ; By-Products of the Dairy ; Butter 
and Cheese Factories ; Statistics and Economics of the Dairy In- 
dustry ; Appendix, comprising useful rules and tests, metric sys- 
tem, dairy laws, and references to dairy literature. 

*ji5* So long as the demand warrants, new volumes will be added 
to the Rural Science Library. Definite arrangements have now 
been completed for the following : 

PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. By J. C. Arthur, Purdue Univ. 
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING OF ANIMALS. By W. H. 

Brewer, of Yale University. 

BUSH FRUITS. By F. W. Card, of University of Nebraska. 

PLANT PATHOLOGY. By B. T. Galloway and associates, of 
United States Department of Agriculture. 

SEEDS AND SEED-GROWING. By G. H. Hicks, of United 
States Department of Agriculture. 

LEGUMINOUS PLANTS AND NITROGEN-GATHERING. By 
E. W. Hilgard, of University of California. 

FEEDING OF ANIMALS. By W. H. Jordan, of New York 
State Experiment Station. 

IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. By F. H. King, of the Uni- 
versity of Wisconsin. 

FERTILIZERS. By E. B. Voorhees, of N. J. Exp. Station. 

RURAL WEALTH AND WELFARE. By George T. Fair- 
child, Ex-President of the Agricultural College of Kansas. 

FARM POULTRY. By George C. Watson, of Pennsylvania 
State College. 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 

66 Fifth Avenue. NEW YORK. 



Edited by Professor L. H. Bailey. 

COMPRISING practical hand-books explaining the methods 
practiced by the horticulturist. They are tastily bound 
in green flexible cloth. Four volumes are now ready, 
all written by Professor Bailey, of Cornell University. 

PLANT -BREEDING: ^®^^^ ^*v® Lectures upon 
the Amelioration of Domes- 
tie Plants. 293 pages, 20 illustrations. $1.00 

This is the only book devoted to this subject. It comprises five 
chapters or lectures : The Fact and Phylosophy of Variation ; 
The Philosophy of the Crossing of Plants ; How Domestic Varieties 
Originate ; Borrowed Opinions, being translations from the writ- 
ings of Verlot, Carriere, and Focke ; Pollination, or How to Cross 
Plants, Chapter III. contains the list of fifteen rules for plant- 
breeding which DeVarigny, the eminent French writer, has called 
"the quindecalogue of the horticulturist," and of which he says, 
"Solomon— if he had demoted himself to horticulture— could not 
have judged more soundly than Mr. Bailey." It is the purpose of 
the book to tell how varieties of cultivated plants come about, and 
how man may originate them. 

"I have read the work on ' Plant-Breeding,' by Professor L. H. Bailey, with 
keen interest, and find it just what I expected from sneh a source ; viz., a 
most satisfactory treatise on a subject of most pressing horticultural impor- 
tance. Professor Bailey combines a breadth of view with knowledge of detail, 
and produces written work most delightful to the scholar, and at the same 
time fit to command the respect and correct the practice of the craftsman. I 
honor Professor Bailey as a leader in the advancement of horticulture." 

E. J. WiCKSON, 

Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley, Cal. 



THE HORTICULTURIST'S RULE -BOOK: 

A compendium of useful information for fruit-grow- 
ers, truek-gardeners, florists, and others. Fourth edition. 
312 pages. 75 Cts. 

This is the standard work of reference for horticulturists, and is 
now so well known that a detailed description is no longer neces- 
sary. The fact that the index contains 2,000 entries shows the 
great range of its contents. It is heaping full of information up- 
on such matters as recipes for insecticides and fungicides, descrip- 
tions (with remedies) of insects and diseases, weeds, lawns, graft- 
ing-waxes, seed and planting-tables, tables of yields, rules for 
greenhouse heating and management, with figures, methods of 
storing produce, tariff and postal rates, rules of societies for nam- 
ing and exhibiting specimens, score-cards and scales of points, 
analyses of fertilizing substances, lists of currant horticultural 
books and journals," with prices and publishers, etc. 



Edited by Professor L. H. Bailey. 

THE NURSERY - BOOK . a complete Guide to the 
* Multiplication of Plants. 

Third edition, thoroughly revised and extended. 365 pages, 152 

illustrations. $1.00 

This manual, which has been one of the most popular of recent 
horticultural books, was first published in 1891. In this third edi- 
tion, all the features of the first two editions have been preserved, 
and the work has been extended to include many new subjects, 
such as seed-testing, mutual influence of stock and cion, the ques- 
tion of the devitalizing effects of graftage, the management and 
fertilizing of nursery lands, the grading of trees, storing of trees, 
trimming trees in the nursery, the healing of wounds, dwarfing 
trees, root-grafted vs. budded trees, and a full glossary. Very 
many new and original illustrations have been added. The book 
comprises full practical directions for seed-sowing, the making of 
all kinds of layers, stools, cuttings, propagation by bulbs and 
tubers, and very complete accounts of all the leading kinds of 
budding, grafting, and inarching. Aside from this. The Nursery 
List is an alphabetical catalogue of about 1,500 plants, — of fruit, 
kitchen-garden, ornamental and greenhouse species, — with direc- 
tions for their multiplication. The book is the most complete 
treatise of its kind in the language, and is the standard reference 
book of nurserymen. 

"This book should be in the hoice of not only every horticulturist, but of 
every family, iri-espective of occupation, who love flowers or ornamental plants, 
for it treats of the propagation of these as well as of food-plants."— JlficTiiflran 
Fruit- Grower. 



THE FORCING-BOOK: a Manual of the Cultiva- 
tion of Vegetables in Glass 

Houses. 266 pages, 88 illustrations. $1.00 

A handbook of instructions upon the forcing of vegetables for 
market, which is the completest work of the kind yet published in 
this country. It is based on careful experimentation at the Cor- 
nell University Station, and a long familiarity with the forcing 
business. It contains full estimates of the cost of heating forcing- 
houses and of the labor necessary to run them, with illustrated 
chapters on the construction of forcing-houses, and their manage- 
ment. Very complete directions are given for the watering, venti- 
lating, shading, and piping of houses ; for the control of insects 
and fungous diseases, the making of forcing-house soils, etc. 
Then follow detailed instructions as to how to force lettuce, cauli- 
flower, radish, asparagus, rhubarb, pea, salad plants and mints, 
root-crops, pepino, cucumber, muskmelon, bean, pepper, egg-plant, 
and others. The final chapter is a collection of summaries of the 
leading points in the management of each croup, so arranged that 
the busy man can turn to any one of them instantly. The book 
should be had by every person who has a greenhouse. 



Edited by Professor L. H. Bailey. 

THE FORCING-BOOK-Continued. 

"The discussion of the various forms of houses, with their structural de- 
tails, is very complete, although concise, and for the space it takes it gives 
more valuable information than can he found elsewhere in the same compass. 
All such practical questions as would be treated under the head of soil, fertil- 
izers, irrigation, shading, pollination, etc., have received careful study, and the 
beginner can feel safe in following them to the letter." — Garden and Forest. 

"It would have saved us dollars and dollars if we could have had it a few 
years ago." C. J. Pennock, Kennett Square, Pa. 

GARDEN-MAKING: Suggestions for the Utilizing 
of Home Grounds. By L. H. 

Bailey, aided by L. R. Taft, F. A. Waugh, and Ernest 
Walker. 417 pages, 256 illustrations. $1.00 

Here is a book literally " for the million " who in broad America 
have some love for growing things. " Every family can have a 
garden. If there is not a foot of land, there are porches or win- 
dows. Wherever there is sunlight, plants may be made to grow; 
and one plant in a tin-can may be a more helpful and inspiring 
garden to some mind than a whole acre of lawn and flowers may 
be to another." Thus Professor Bailey introduces his subject, and 
the book which follows is one to instruct, inspire, edify and edu- 
cate the reader, if he can raise his eyes from city cobble-stones! 
It tells of ornamental gardening of any range, with lists of trees 
and shrubs most suitable for various effects ; treats of fruits and 
of vegetables for home use, and gives the word of instruction so 
often wanted, but hitherto unattainable in any one simple and com- 
pact book. No modern American work covers this important field. 
The illustrations are copious and beautiful. 

Garden-Making includes General Advice; the Plan of the Place 
(The Picture in the Landscape, How to make the improvements, 
etc.); Planting the Ornamental Grounds; The Fruit Plantation; 
The Vegetable Garden; Seasonal Reminders (Calendars for North 
and for the South). 



Not included in either of the foregoing series. 

THE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE : a couec- 

tion of 

Evolution Essays Suggested by the Study of Domestic 

Plants. Second edition. $2.00 

This is an Ulustrated volume of 515 pages by Professor Bailey. 

containing an immense amount of fact, experiment and philosophy 



TOxtrks iig fxnUssnx ^Etlieg. 

THE SURVIVAL OF THE UN LIKE -Continued. 

respecting the evolution of plants, and particularly of their modi- 
fication under cultivation. It is the most thorough discussion of 
the running-out of varieties, acclimatization, and the like. It is, 
in fact, the only book which can be called a philosophy of horti- 
culture. It comprises thirty essays, as follows: The Survival of 
the Unlike ; Neo-Lamarckism and Neo-Darwinism; The Plant 
Individual in the Light of Evolution, or The Philosophy of Bud- 
Variation, and its Bearing upon Weismannism ; Experimental 
Evolution amongst Plants ; Van Mons and Knight, and the Pro- 
duction of Varieties ; Some Bearings of the Evolution-Teaching 
upon Plant-Cultivation ; Why Have our Enemies Increased ? ;. 
Coxey's Army and the Russian Thistle, or a Sketch of the Philos- 
ophy of Weediness ; Recent Progress in American Horticulture; 
On the Supposed Correlations of Quality in Fruits; The Natural 
History of Synonyms; Reflective Impressions of the Nursery 
Business ; The Relation of Seed-Bearing to Cultivation ; Variation 
after Birth ; A Pomological Alliance ; Sketch of the Relationship 
between American and Eastern Asian Fruits ; Horticultural Geo- 
graphy ; Some Emphatic Problems of Climate and Plants, Com- 
prising "Speculative Notes upon Phenology (the Physiological 
Constant, and the Climatal Modification of Phenological Phenom- 
ena)," and " Some Interrelations of Climatology and Horticul- 
ture "; Are American Fruits Best Adapted to American Conditions? ; 
Acclimatization : Does it Occur ? ; On the Longevity of Apple 
Trees ; Sex in Fruits ; Are Novelties Worth their Cost ? ; Why 
do Promising Varieties Fail ? ; Reflections upon the Longevity of 
Varieties, comprising "Do Varieties Run Out?" "Are the Varieties 
of Orchard Fruits Rimning Out ? " " Studies in the Longevitj^ of 
the Varieties of Tomatoes"; Whence Came the Cultivated Straw- 
berry?; The Battle of the Plums; The Evolution of American 
Grapes ; The Progress of the Carnation, comprising "Types and 
Tendencies in the Carnation," "John Thorpe's Ideal Carnation," 
and "Border Carnations"; Evolution of the Petunia; The Amelio- 
ration of the Garden Tomato, comprising " The Origin of the 
Tomato from a Morphological Standpoint," "History of the Trophj^ 
Tomato," "The Probable Course of Evolution of the Tomato," and 
" Direction of Contemporaneous Improvement of the Tomato " ; 
Glossary. 

"Wliatever Professor Bailey writes is interesting reading. He lias the rare 
gift of an entertaining style, and what lie writes people want to read. All liis 
previous books have be^n widely read, and this will prove no exception to the 
well-established rule. The secret of this popularity, if there be any secret about 
it, is that when he writes he has something new to say,— something based 
upon experiences and observations. These are by no means all his own, for 
he has the ability to see with the eyes of other people, as well as with his 
own. He is thus able to bring into his pages a rich mass of new matter, which 
gives them aditional interest and value." Professor C. E. Bessey, 

University of Nebraska, in ^^ Science." 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

66 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK 



Announcement of Important 
Horticultural Books. 

In addition to the volumes extending the Rural 
Science Series, as given on a previous page, the fol- 
lowing important works are in preparation: 

THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NATIVE FRUITS. A com- 

panion volume to " The Survival of the Unlike," and written 
on the same original lines, by Professor L. H. Bailey. It 
will be copiously illustrated, and is now on the press. 

A TEXT BOOK OF AGRICULTURE FOR SCHOOL USE. 

Designed to supply a practical and efficient statement of the 
Elements of Agricultural Science. By Professor L. H. 
Bailey. 

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN HORTICULTURE. To 

be published in three large illustrated volumes, dated 1900. 
This work will be the first comprehensive and adequate pre- 
sentation of American horticulture in its widest sense, and 
under the editorial supervision of Professor Bailey will con- 
tain signed articles by eminent specialists on various topics, 
arranged alphabetically. The illustrations may be expected 
to excel in beauty and accuracy any found in horticultural 
literature to-day; they are being now prepared by artists of 
ability, upon a consistent plan. The tj'^pography and binding 
will be likewise of high grade, befitting a work of inter- 
national importance. 

g^* Inquiry is solicited concerning terms "of publication, etc., 
of this work. Address 

The Macmillan company 

66 Fifth Ave. 

NEW YORK. 



